Effects of error and errorless discrimination acquisition on reversal learning

Errorless learning of a conditional temporal discrimination

In the present study we extended errorless learning to a conditional temporal discrimination. Pigeons' responses to a left-red key after a 2-s sample and to a right-green key after a 10-s sample were reinforced. There were two groups: One learned the discrimination through trial and error and the other through an errorless learning procedure. Then, both groups were presented with three types of tests. First, they were exposed to intermediate durations between 2 s and 10 s, and given a choice between both keys (stimulus generalization test). Second, a delay from 1 s to 16 s was included between the offset of the sample and the onset of the choice keys (delay test). Finally, pigeons learned a new discrimination in which the stimuli were switched (reversal test). Results showed that pigeons from the Errorless group made significantly fewer errors than those in the Trial-and-Error group. Both groups performed similarly during the stimulus generalization test and the reversal test, but results of the delay test suggested that, on long stimulus trials, responding in the errorless training group was less disrupted by delays.

An electrophysiological study of errorless learning

Errorless learning, i.e. learning under conditions that prevent the generation of false memory candidates, has been shown to lead to enhanced memory performance during retrieval compared to errorful, trial-and-error, learning. These two learning methods were implemented in a word-stem completion format and contrasted in young healthy subjects with stimulus-locked and response-locked event-related brain potentials (ERPs) being recorded during memory retrieval. Retrieval accuracy was enhanced for items studied under errorless conditions. Stimulus-locked ERPs showed a modulation of a right frontal effect that differed in amplitude and topography for items learned under errorful and errorless conditions. This effect is interpreted as reflecting post-retrieval processes. In the response-locked ERPs, a typical error-related negativity (ERN) was observed that was most prominent for false alarm trials in the errorless condition, of medium amplitude for hits and false alarms in the errorful condition, smaller for hits in the errorless condition and virtually absent for items correctly or incorrectly classified as new. We propose that the amplitude modulation of the ERN is related to the activity of an internal monitoring device checking the veridicality of a retrieved memory trace.

The implicit benefit of learning without errors

Two studies examined whether the number of errors made in learning a motor skill, golf putting, differentially influences the adoption of a selective (explicit) or unselective (implicit) learning mode. Errorful learners were expected to adopt an explicit, hypothesis-testing strategy to correct errors during learning, thereby accruing a pool of verbalizable rules and exhibiting performance breakdown under dual-task conditions, characteristic of a selective mode of learning. Reducing errors during learning was predicted to minimize the involvement of explicit hypothesis testing leading to the adoption of an unselective mode of learning, distinguished by few verbalizable rules and robust performance under secondary task loading. Both studies supported these predictions. The golf putting performance of errorless learners in both studies was unaffected by the imposition of a secondary task load, whereas the performance of errorful learners deteriorated. Reducing errors during learning limited the number of error-correcting hypotheses tested by the learner, thereby reducing the contribution of explicit processing to skill acquisition. It was concluded that the reduction of errors during learning encourages the use of implicit, unselective learning processes, which confer insusceptibility to performance breakdown under distraction.

Programmed training of visual discriminations: a comparison of techniques

The efficiency of three discrimination training procedures was compared for mentally handicapped children trained on a shape discrimination presented via a microcomputer. Each of three groups received one of the following training procedures; graded stimulus fading; graded prompt fading, a procedure approximating behavior modification prompting techniques; trial-and-error training. The stimulus fading and graded prompting procedures were equivalent in terms of the number of steps and criteria for fading. Results showed the two programmed techniques did not differ significantly, but both were significantly superior to trial-and-error learning in terms of number of children reaching criterion, number of trials to criterion, and number of errors. The training procedures were continued for subjects from each of the three groups for an additional two problems, followed by a trial-and-error test problem. Over the additional training problems the pattern of differences between the groups in number of errors remained significant, however differences between the groups in number of trials to criterion decreased. There were no significant differences in any of the measures on the trial-and-error test problem. Results are discussed in relation to the literature on errorless learning techniques, and the implications for applied training procedures are elucidated.