Radiographic characteristics of neuroendocrine liver metastases do not predict clinical outcomes following liver resection

Cinematic Rendering of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumours: Opportunities for Clinical Implementation: Part 2: Preoperative Planning and Evaluation of Metastatic Disease

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PNETs) are a rare subset of pancreatic tumours that have historically comprised up to 3% of all clinically detected pancreatic tumours. In recent decades, however, advancements in imaging have led to an increased incidental detection rate of PNETs and imaging has played an increasingly central role in the initial diagnostics and surgical planning of these tumours. Cinematic rendering (CR) is a 3D post-processing technique that generates highly photorealistic images through more realistically modelling the path of photons through the imaged volume. This allows for more comprehensive visualization, description, and interpretation of anatomical structures. In this 2-part review article, we present the first description of the various CR appearances of PNETs in the reported literature while providing commentary on the unique clinical opportunities afforded by the adjunctive utilization of CR in the workup of these rare tumours. This second instalment focuses on the applications of CR in optimizing preoperative planning of PNETs.

Liver Imaging in Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms

ABSTRACT

The incidence of neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) has gradually increased over the past few decades with the majority of patients presenting with metastases on initial presentation. The liver is the most common site of initial metastatic disease, and the presence of liver metastasis is an independent prognostic factor associated with a negative outcome. Because NENs are heterogenous neoplasms with variable differentiation, grading, and risk of grade transformation over time, accurate diagnosis and management of neuroendocrine liver lesions are both important and challenging. This is particularly so with the multiple liver-directed treatment options available. In this review article, we discuss the diagnosis, treatment, and response evaluation of NEN liver metastases.

Liver transplantation in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors

Neuroendocrine tumors are part of a heterogeneous group of tumors located in organs such as the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), lungs, thymus, thyroid, and adrenal glands. The most prevalent sites are the small intestine, cecal appendix, and pancreas. More than 50% of these tumors are associated with metastases at the time of diagnosis. Neuroendocrine tumors are classified according to the degree of cell differentiation and the histopathological proliferation index of the lesion. Neuroendocrine tumors can be well differentiated or poorly differentiated. G3 tumors are characterized by Ki-67 expression greater than 20% and can be either well differentiated (G3 NET) or poorly differentiated (G3 NEC). Neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC G3) is subdivided into small-cell and large-cell types. When neuroendocrine tumors present clinical and compressive symptoms, carcinoid syndrome is evident. Carcinoid syndrome occurs when the tumor produces neuroendocrine mediators that cannot be metabolized by the liver due to either the size of the tumor or their secretion by the liver itself. Several therapeutic strategies have been described for the treatment of metastatic neuroendocrine tumors, including curative or palliative surgical approaches, peptide receptor radionuclide therapy, percutaneous therapy, systemic chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Liver surgery is the only approach that can offer a cure for metastatic patients. Liver metastases must be completely resected, and in this context, orthotopic liver transplantation has gained prominence for yielding very promising outcomes in selected cases. The aim of this study is to review the literature on OLT as a form of treatment with curative intent for patients with gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors with liver metastasis.

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours: spectrum of imaging findings

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (pNETs) are rare and heterogeneous group of neoplasms presenting with a wide variety of symptoms and biological behaviour, from indolent to aggressive ones. pNETs are stratified into functional or non-functional, because of their ability to produce metabolically active hormones. pNETs can be an isolate phenomenon or a part of a hereditary syndrome like von Hippel-Lindau syndrome or neurofibromatosis-1. The incidence has increased in the last years, also because of the improvement of cross-sectional imaging. Computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional imaging are the mainstay imaging modalities used for tumour detection and disease extension assessment, due to easy availability and better contrast/spatial resolution. Radiological imaging plays a fundamental role in detection, characterization and surveillance of pNETs and is involved in almost every stage of patients' management. Moreover, with specific indications and techniques, interventional radiology can also play a role in therapeutic management. Surgery is the treatment of choice, consisting of either partial pancreatectomy or enucleation of the primary tumour. This article reviews the radiologic features of different pNETs as well as imaging mimics, in order to help radiologists to avoid potential pitfalls, to reach the correct diagnosis and to support the multidisciplinary team in establishing the right treatment.

Neuroendocrine liver metastases: a contemporary review of treatment strategies

Well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are globally increasing in prevalence and the liver is the most common site of metastasis. Neuroendocrine liver metastases (NELM) are heterogeneous in clinical presentation and prognosis. Fortunately, recent advances in diagnostic techniques and therapeutic strategies have improved the multidisciplinary management of this challenging condition. When feasible, surgical resection of NELM offers the best long-term outcomes. General indications for hepatic resection include performance status acceptable for major liver surgery, grade 1 or 2 tumors, absence of extrahepatic disease, adequate size and function of future liver remnant, and feasibility of resecting >90% of metastases. Adjunct therapies including concomitant liver ablation are generally safe when used appropriately and may expand the number of patients eligible for surgery. Among patients with synchronous resectable NELM, resection of the primary either in a staged or combined fashion is recommended. For patients who are not surgical candidates, liver-directed therapies such as transarterial embolization, chemoembolization, and radioembolization can provide locoregional control and improve symptoms of carcinoid syndrome. Multiple systemic therapy options also exist for patients with advanced or progressive disease. Ongoing research efforts are needed to identify novel biomarkers that will define the optimal indications for and sequencing of treatments to be delivered in a personalized fashion.