Ascertainment of maternal deaths in New York City

Pregnancy associated death in record linkage studies relative to delivery, termination of pregnancy, and natural losses: A systematic review with a narrative synthesis and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Measures of pregnancy associated deaths provide important guidance for public health initiatives. Record linkage studies have significantly improved identification of deaths associated with childbirth but relatively few have also examined deaths associated with pregnancy loss even though higher rates of maternal death have been associated with the latter. Following PRISMA guidelines we undertook a systematic review of record linkage studies examining the relative mortality risks associated with pregnancy loss to develop a narrative synthesis, a meta-analysis, and to identify research opportunities.

METHODS

MEDLINE and SCOPUS were searched in July 2015 using combinations of: mortality, maternal death, record linkage, linked records, pregnancy associated mortality, and pregnancy associated death to identify papers using linkage of death certificates to independent records identifying pregnancy outcomes. Additional studies were identified by examining all citations for relevant studies.

RESULTS

Of 989 studies, 11 studies from three countries reported mortality rates associated with termination of pregnancy, miscarriage or failed pregnancy. Within a year of their pregnancy outcomes, women experiencing a pregnancy loss are over twice as likely to die compared to women giving birth. The heightened risk is apparent within 180 days and remains elevated for many years. There is a dose effect, with exposure to each pregnancy loss associated with increasing risk of death. Higher rates of death from suicide, accidents, homicide and some natural causes, such as circulatory diseases, may be from elevated stress and risk taking behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

Both miscarriage and termination of pregnancy are markers for reduced life expectancy. This association should inform research and new public health initiatives including screening and interventions for patients exhibiting known risk factors.

Underreporting of maternal deaths on death certificates and the magnitude of the problem of maternal mortality

OBJECTIVES

I studied the extent to which maternal deaths are underreported on death certificates.

METHODS

We collected data on maternal deaths from death certificates, linkage of death certificates with birth and fetal death records, and review of medical examiner records.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight percent of maternal deaths were unreported on death certificates. Half or more deaths were unreported for women who were undelivered at the time of death, experienced a fetal death or therapeutic abortion, died more than a week after delivery, or died as a result of a cardiovascular disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

The number of maternal deaths is substantially underestimated when death certificates alone are used to identify deaths, and it is unlikely that the Healthy People 2010 objective of reducing the maternal mortality rate to no more than 3.3 deaths per 100000 live births by 2010 can be achieved. Increasing numbers of births to older women and multiple-gestation pregnancies are likely to complicate efforts to reduce maternal mortality.

Análisis de la ocurrencia de la Mortalidad Materna en la Provincia de Santa Fe - Argentina, a propósito de una intervención

INTRODUCCÍON: La Mortalidad Materna (MM) muestra diferencias en las condiciones de salud y de vida de las poblaciones, constituyéndose en un buen indicador socio-económico, así como de la cobertura y calidad de los servicios de atención a la mujer en edad fértil. Las estadísticas oficiales de salud no revelan la magnitud del problema de la MM debido al subregistro que posee esta causa de muerte. Dicha falencia se señala especialmente para los países subdesarrollados. Se estima que la República Argentina no escapa al fenómeno del subregistro. La provincia de Santa Fe en el año 1994 decidió incorporar a su Certificado de Defunción un ITEM específico para la causa Muerte Materna con el fin de corregir el subregistro. OBJETIVOS: El objetivo principal de este estudio fue evaluar los cambios que registró la Razón de Mortalidad Materna (RMM) en el período 1988-2001, como consecuencia de la introducción del "ITEM 33" referido a la Muerte Materna, en el Certificado de Defunción de la Provincia de Santa Fe a partir del año 1995. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se revisó la bibliografía respecto del subregistro de la MM. Se estudió la ocurrencia de la MM en la Provincia de Santa Fe en el período 1988-2001. Se analizaron los cambios producidos por la presencia del "ITEM 33" en el Certificado de Defunción de la Provincia de Santa fe en el período 1995-2001. RESULTADOS: Se observó un aumento en las cifras absolutas de MM y por ende de las razones de MM (41 %) en el período 1995-2001, a diferencia de la tendencia descendente de este indicador tanto a nivel nacional como a nivel provincial en el período anterior (pre "ITEM 33"). Se observó además, una modificación en la distribución de las muertes respecto a su incidencia en los grupos etáreos. Otro dato de interés es que se modificó la frecuencia de las patologías que originaron la muerte (causa de muerte) siendo el Aborto la causa más frecuente, a diferencia de los períodos anteriores donde aparecía la Hipertensión Arterial ocupando el primer lugar. CONCLUSIÓN: La introducción del "ITEM 33" en el Certificado de Defunción de la Provincia de Santa Fe produjo modificaciones importantes en los datos sobre MM. Estas modificaciones pueden ser atribuidas a la disminución del subregistro, ya que no se encuentran razones valederas para pensar en un aumento real en la ocurrencia de muertes maternas. Por lo cual se concluye que: este instrumento de recolección de datos permitiría corregir el subregistro y obtener datos de mayor calidad que, en consecuencia, posibiliten la implementación de políticas y programas de salud basados en datos que reflejen la verdadera situación sanitaria.

Active surveillance of maternal mortality in New York City

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the usefulness of computer-assisted active surveillance in identifying maternal deaths in New York City.

METHODS

Computerized searches of hospital discharge and autopsy record databases were conducted for maternal deaths occurring in 1997.

RESULTS

Active surveillance revealed 14 new maternal deaths not previously reported, an 88% increase. Nine of these deaths were found through the hospital discharge database search, 1 was found through the autopsy record search, and 4 were found in both searches. Overall maternal mortality ratios associated with active surveillance and routine surveillance were 24.3 and 13.0 deaths per 100 000 live births, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Active surveillance of maternal mortality is useful in identifying new maternal deaths. Existing databases can be used relatively easily to augment routine surveillance of maternal mortality.

Maternal mortality in New York City: excess mortality of black women

To assess maternal mortality in New York City, birth certificates and mortality records for New York City from 1988 through 1994 were linked and examined. During these 7 years, maternal mortality in New York City (defined by the International Classification of Diseases, 9th edition [ICD-9], as 630-676) per 100,000 live births significantly exceeded that of the country as a whole (20.2 vs. 8.2, respectively). Within New York City, an even greater variation of maternal mortality by race/ethnicity was noted, with the mortality ratio of whites, blacks, and Hispanics being 7.1, 39.5, and 14.4 per 100,000 live births, respectively. Socioeconomic characteristics such as educational attainment, marital status, and income influenced maternal mortality more in non-blacks than blacks. Analyses of cause-specific mortality revealed that, overall, ectopic pregnancy, embolism, and hypertension were the leading causes of death. However, the major factors explaining the excess maternal mortality among blacks were hypertension (mortality ratio of blacks to whites 5.57, 95% confidence interval 2.30-13.39), ectopic pregnancy (4.78, 95% confidence interval 2.40-9.51), and abortion (4.58, 95% confidence interval 1.72-12.22). These findings confirm a persisting gap in maternal death between black and white women. Indeed, if all New Yorkers who became pregnant enjoyed the survival of the city's non-Hispanic white residents, the difference in maternal mortality between the city and the nation would be eliminated.

Homicide and other injuries as causes of maternal death in New York City, 1987 through 1991

OBJECTIVES

We attempted to document the role of homicide and other injuries as causes of maternal death and to compare the risk of fatal injury among pregnant women with that in the general population.

STUDY DESIGN

We reviewed New York City medical examiner records of 2331 women aged 15 to 44 years who died of injury in 1987 through 1991. Pregnancies were identified from autopsy information.

RESULTS

A total of 115 (39%) of 293 deaths in currently or recently pregnant women were attributable to injury. These 115 deaths included homicide (63%), suicide (13%), motor vehicle crashes (12%), and drug overdoses (7%). Minority women were overrepresented among the injury deaths (black 53%, Hispanic 24%, white 19%). Recent substance use was documented in 48% of the injury deaths. Pregnancy was documented on only 35% of the 115 death certificates. The risk of fatal injury is similar for currently pregnant women and for women in the general population, except for an increased risk of homicide among pregnant black women.

CONCLUSIONS

Homicide and other injuries are major contributors to maternal mortality and should be (but rarely are) included routinely in maternal mortality surveillance systems. Prenatal and postpartum clinic visits represent an ideal time to implement interventions to prevent injuries among pregnant women.

Suicide during pregnancy and its neglect as a component of maternal mortality

OBJECTIVES

To raise awareness about the socio-cultural factors which may lead pregnant women to commit suicide.

METHODS

This paper reviews and compiles current international literature on this topic, and suggests comparison with evidence from the past.

RESULTS

Suicide during pregnancy is often due to the limited choices women face when confronted with an unwanted pregnancy. Neglect of this subject is due in part to the exclusion of suicide from classification as 'maternal death,' and other difficulties in collecting reliable data.

CONCLUSIONS

The problem of suicide during pregnancy underscores the need for sex education at an early age, access to family planning, and access to safe abortion services.

Retrospective maternal mortality case ascertainment in West Virginia, 1985 to 1989

OBJECTIVE

The death of women from pregnancy-related causes remains a threat to national maternal and child health. Maternal deaths as persistent, albeit rare occurrences are overlooked if vital registration systems are relied on to report such deaths.

STUDY DESIGN

Live birth records were matched with death records for women of reproductive age to detect if a woman died within 1 year of delivery. The data for potential cases were reviewed by committee and classified as maternal and nonmaternal deaths.

RESULTS

Of all linked birth-death records, 32% were related to pregnancy: 81% were directly related to pregnancy and 19% were indirectly related to pregnancy. The most frequent causes of death were hemorrhage and embolism. Thirty-eight percent of the women were transferred to tertiary hospitals before death. The case ascertainment through this study improved maternal death detection by 100% over official vital statistics.

CONCLUSION

Enhanced maternal mortality surveillance increased the detection of maternal death in West Virginia. Case review of these deaths yielded important information useful in shaping the state's perinatal system.