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Zhou Y, Wang C, Nie Y, Wu L, Xu A. 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene causes mitochondrial toxicity in Caenorhabditis elegans by affecting electron transport. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 252:118820. [PMID: 38555093 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
As a typical energetic compound widely used in military activities, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) has attracted great attention in recent years due to its heavy pollution and wide distribution in and around the training facilities, firing ranges, and demolition sites. However, the subcellular targets and the underlying toxic mechanism of TNT remain largely unknown. In this study, we explored the toxic effects of TNT biological reduction on the mitochondrial function and homeostasis in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). With short-term exposure of L4 larvae, 10-1000 ng/mL TNT reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content, which was associated with decreased expression of specific mitochondrial complex involving gas-1 and mev-1 genes. Using fluorescence-labeled transgenic nematodes, we found that fluorescence expression of sod-3 (muls84) and gst-4 (dvls19) was increased, suggesting that TNT disrupted the mitochondrial antioxidant defense system. Furthermore, 10 ng/mL TNT exposure increased the expression of the autophagy-related gene pink-1 and activated mitochondrial unfolded protein response (mt UPR), which was indicated by the increased expression of mitochondrial stress activated transcription factor atfs-1, ubiquitin-like protein ubl-5, and homeobox protein dve-1. Our findings demonstrated that TNT biological reduction caused mitochondrial dysfunction and the development of mt UPR protective stress responses, and provided a basis for determining the potential risks of energetic compounds to living organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Zhou
- Center of Free Electron Laser & High Magnetic Field, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, PR China
| | - Chunyan Wang
- Center of Free Electron Laser & High Magnetic Field, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, PR China
| | - Yaguang Nie
- Center of Free Electron Laser & High Magnetic Field, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, PR China.
| | - Lijun Wu
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, PR China
| | - An Xu
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, PR China; Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Pollution Control Technology, High Magnetic Field Laboratory, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Science, Anhui, Hefei, 230031, PR China.
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Zhang H, Zhu Y, Wang S, Zhao S, Nie Y, Liao X, Cao H, Yin H, Liu X. Contamination characteristics of energetic compounds in soils of two different types of military demolition range in China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 295:118654. [PMID: 34890741 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The pollution of energetic compounds (ECs) in military ranges has become the focus of worldwide attention. However, few studies on the contamination of ECs at Chinese military ranges have been reported to date. In this study, two different types of military demolition range in China, Dunhua (DH) and Taiyuan (TY), were investigated and the ECs in their soils were determined. 10 ECs were detected at both ranges. While all the contamination characteristics were distinct, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) was the most abundant contamination source in soils at DH range, with an average concentration of 1106 mg kg-1 and a maximum concentration of 34,083 mg kg-1. Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and two mono-amino degradation products of TNT were also found to have high concentrations, with potential ecological and human health risks. In contrast, the concentrations of ECs in soils of TY range were much lower. The content of RDX was most significant, with average and maximum concentrations of 7.8 and 158 mg kg-1, respectively. However, the potential threat to human health of 2,4-dinitrotoluene and 2,6-dinitrotoluene in soils at both ranges should not be ignored. The differences in pollution characteristics of the ECs at DH and TY are closely related to the types and amounts of the munitions destroyed. Moreover, the spatial distribution of ECs at the demolition ranges was extremely heterogeneous, which may be attributed to the use of open burning / open detonation and the non-homogeneous composition of the munitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huijun Zhang
- Institute of Polar Environment & Anhui Key Laboratory of Polar Environment and Global Change, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China
| | - Yongbing Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing, 102205, China
| | - Shiyu Wang
- Institute of Polar Environment & Anhui Key Laboratory of Polar Environment and Global Change, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China
| | - Sanping Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing, 102205, China
| | - Yaguang Nie
- Information Materials and Intelligent Sensing Laboratory of Anhui Province, Institutes of Physical Science and Information Technology, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China
| | - Xiaoyong Liao
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Hongying Cao
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Hao Yin
- Instruments' Center for Physical Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Xiaodong Liu
- Institute of Polar Environment & Anhui Key Laboratory of Polar Environment and Global Change, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China.
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Munjal P, Sharma B, Sethi JR, Dalal A, Gholap SL. Identification and analysis of organic explosives from post-blast debris by nuclear magnetic resonance. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 403:124003. [PMID: 33265036 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The growing threat of terrorism has triggered an urgent need to find effective ways to improve the analysis of explosives. This will aid forensic scientists in analysing the post-blast debris, which in turn helps the law enforcement agencies to frame suitable regulations. Analysis of post-blast debris is challenging as it hosts a massive amount of complexity. There are various techniques reported till date such as mass spectrometry, gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy for the analysis of post-blast residues. However, none of them has been able to identify the structural composition of the explosives. The current research study focuses on identifying the structural composition of the explosives from the post-blast debris using the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technology. The post-blast analytes were extracted from soil samples, cleaned by the solid phase extraction (SPE) method and were rapidly analysed by the nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer. This paper reports the identification of nitro organic explosives such as pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl) in post-blast debris by 400 MHz nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Munjal
- Chemistry & Toxicology Division, LNJN National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science, Ministry of Home Affairs, Sec-3, Rohini, Delhi 110085, India.
| | - Bhumika Sharma
- Chemistry & Toxicology Division, LNJN National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science, Ministry of Home Affairs, Sec-3, Rohini, Delhi 110085, India
| | - J R Sethi
- Chemistry & Toxicology Division, LNJN National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science, Ministry of Home Affairs, Sec-3, Rohini, Delhi 110085, India
| | - Anu Dalal
- Chemistry Department, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
| | - Shivajirao L Gholap
- Chemistry Department, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
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Yu HA, Nic Daeid N, Dawson LA, DeTata DA, Lewis SW. Explosive detonation causes an increase in soil porosity leading to increased TNT transformation. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0189177. [PMID: 29281650 PMCID: PMC5744939 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Explosives are a common soil contaminant at a range of sites, including explosives manufacturing plants and areas associated with landmine detonations. As many explosives are toxic and may cause adverse environmental effects, a large body of research has targeted the remediation of explosives residues in soil. Studies in this area have largely involved spiking 'pristine' soils using explosives solutions. Here we investigate the fate of explosives present in soils following an actual detonation process and compare this to the fate of explosives spiked into 'pristine' undetonated soils. We also assess the effects of the detonations on the physical properties of the soils. Our scanning electron microscopy analyses reveal that detonations result in newly-fractured planes within the soil aggregates, and novel micro Computed Tomography analyses of the soils reveal, for the first time, the effect of the detonations on the internal architecture of the soils. We demonstrate that detonations cause an increase in soil porosity, and this correlates to an increased rate of TNT transformation and loss within the detonated soils, compared to spiked pristine soils. We propose that this increased TNT transformation is due to an increased bioavailability of the TNT within the now more porous post-detonation soils, making the TNT more easily accessible by soil-borne bacteria for potential biodegradation. This new discovery potentially exposes novel remediation methods for explosive contaminated soils where actual detonation of the soil significantly promotes subsequent TNT degradation. This work also suggests previously unexplored ramifications associated with high energy soil disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly A. Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Institute of Functional Molecules and Interfaces, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Niamh Nic Daeid
- Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Lorna A. Dawson
- The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - David A. DeTata
- Forensic Science Laboratory, ChemCentre, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Simon W. Lewis
- Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Institute of Functional Molecules and Interfaces, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
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Lapointe MC, Martel R, Diaz E. A Conceptual Model of Fate and Transport Processes for RDX Deposited to Surface Soils of North American Active Demolition Sites. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2017; 46:1444-1454. [PMID: 29293864 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2017.02.0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The use of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) as an energetic material (EM) in ammunition constituents such as detonators, primers, mines, and rocket boosters and in plastic explosives has led to an international warning on possible soil, surface water, and groundwater contamination on military training sites. In Canada, the demolition sites of range training areas are known to be the second most contaminated sites by EM residues in terms of their concentrations in soil after anti-tank ranges. This research proposes a conceptual model of the presence of RDX at the field scale at demolition sites according to previous soil and water characterization studies. This model illustrates the origin of RDX contamination, the main RDX transport pathways and processes, and the main threatened receptors. This conceptual model is of importance to visualize and understand RDX's environmental fate and behavior and to ultimately enable the production of a detailed quantitative model that can help to manage those RDX-contaminated sites.
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Yu H, DeTata D, Lewis S, Nic Daeid N. The stability of TNT, RDX and PETN in simulated post-explosion soils: Implications of sample preparation for analysis. Talanta 2017; 164:716-726. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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DeTata D, Collins P, McKinley A. An investigation into the fate of organic explosives in soil. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2012.691548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Douglas TA, Walsh ME, McGrath CJ, Weiss CA, Jaramillo AM, Trainor TP. Desorption of nitramine and nitroaromatic explosive residues from soils detonated under controlled conditions. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2011; 30:345-353. [PMID: 21038362 DOI: 10.1002/etc.383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Potentially toxic nitroaromatic and nitramine compounds are introduced onto soils during detonation of explosives. The present study was conducted to investigate the desorption and transformation of explosive compounds loaded onto three soils through controlled detonation. The soils were proximally detonated with Composition B, a commonly used military explosive containing 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and octahydro 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX). Gas-exchangeable surface areas were measured from pristine and detonated soils. Aqueous batches of detonated soils were prepared by mixing each soil with ultrapure water. Samples were collected for 141 d and concentrations of Composition B compounds and TNT transformation products 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2ADNT), 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4ADNT), and 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (1,3,5-TNB) were measured. The RDX, HMX, and TNT concentrations in detonated soil batches exhibited first-order physical desorption for the first, roughly, 10 d and then reached steady state apparent equilibrium within 40 d. An aqueous batch containing powdered Composition B in water was sampled over time to quantify TNT, RDX, and HMX dissolution from undetonated Composition B particles. The TNT, RDX, and HMX concentrations in aqueous batches of pure Composition B reached equilibrium within 6, 11, and 20 d, respectively. Detonated soils exhibited lower gas-exchangeable surface areas than their pristine counterparts. This is likely due to an explosive residue coating on detonated soil surfaces, shock-induced compaction, sintering, and/or partial fusion of soil particles under the intense heat associated with detonation. Our results suggest that explosive compounds loaded to soils through detonation take longer to reach equilibrium concentrations in aqueous batches than soils loaded with explosive residues through aqueous addition. This is likely due to the heterogeneous interactions between explosive residues and soil particle surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Douglas
- U.S. Army Engineering Research and Development Center, Fort Wainwright, Alaska, USA.
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