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Rivenbark KJ, Fawkes LS, Nikkhah H, Wang M, Sansom GT, Beykal B, Wade TL, Phillips TD. Using L. minor and C. elegans to assess the ecotoxicity of real-life contaminated soil samples and their remediation by clay- and carbon-based sorbents. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 347:123762. [PMID: 38479705 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
Toxic substances, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals, can accumulate in soil, posing a risk to human health and the environment. To reduce the risk of exposure, rapid identification and remediation of potentially hazardous soils is necessary. Adsorption of contaminants by activated carbons and clay materials is commonly utilized to decrease the bioavailability of chemicals in soil and environmental toxicity in vitro, and this study aims to determine their efficacy in real-life soil samples. Two ecotoxicological models (Lemna minor and Caenorhabditis elegans) were used to test residential soil samples, known to contain an average of 5.3, 262, and 9.6 ppm of PAHs, lead, and mercury, for potential toxicity. Toxicity testing of these soils indicated that 86% and 58% of soils caused ≤50% inhibition of growth and survival of L. minor and C. elegans, respectively. Importantly, 3 soil samples caused ≥90% inhibition of growth in both models, and the toxicity was positively correlated with levels of heavy metals. These toxic soil samples were prioritized for remediation using activated carbon and SM-Tyrosine sorbents, which have been shown to immobilize PAHs and heavy metals, respectively. The inclusion of low levels of SM-Tyrosine protected the growth and survival of L. minor and C. elegans by 83% and 78%, respectively from the polluted soil samples while activated carbon offered no significant protection. These results also indicated that heavy metals were the driver of toxicity in the samples. Results from this study demonstrate that adsorption technologies are effective strategies for remediating complex, real-life soil samples contaminated with hazardous pollutants and protecting natural soil and groundwater resources and habitats. The results highlight the applicability of these ecotoxicological models as rapid screening tools for monitoring soil quality and verifying the efficacy of remediation practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Rivenbark
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Leanne S Fawkes
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Texas School of Public Health San Antonio at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Hasan Nikkhah
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA; Center for Clean Energy Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Meichen Wang
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Garett T Sansom
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Burcu Beykal
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA; Center for Clean Energy Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Terry L Wade
- Geochemical & Environmental Research Group, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Timothy D Phillips
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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Jorge BC, Reis ACC, Stein J, Paschoalini BR, Bueno JN, da Silva Moreira S, Godoi AR, Fioravante VC, Martinez FE, Pinheiro PFF, Arena AC. A low dose of benzo(a)pyrene during prepuberty in male rats generated immediate oxidative stress in the testes and compromised steroidogenic enzymes/proteins. Reprod Toxicol 2024; 124:108549. [PMID: 38278498 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2024.108549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
The prepubertal period is crucial for sexual development and any alterations can interfere with the reproductive system in adulthood. The aim of this study was to evaluate how Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) can affect the testes during the prepubertal period. Juvenile male Wistar rats were divided into a control (corn oil + DMSO) and a BaP-group (0.1 μg/kg/day), exposed to BaP for 31 days (gavage), and all parameters were evaluated on postnatal day (PND) 54. Leukocyte counts were decreased. Histological analyses of the testes revealed that height and seminiferous tubules diameters (STDs) were reduced, tubular dynamics were altered, and Leydig cell atrophy was evident in the BaP-group. The testosterone concentration was decreased while FSH levels increased within the BaP-exposed group. Steroidogenic enzymes in the testes were decreased, but steroidogenic acute regulatory protein was not altered. The expression of gstp1 and ckit enzymes was decreased. Reduced glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were increased, whereas malondialdehyde (MDA) was decreased in the testes. In conclusion, BaP or its metabolites causes low systemic toxicity; however, it adversely influences testicular function by disrupting the hormonal axis, unbalancing testicular antioxidative, and blocking the action of the steroidogenic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara C Jorge
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Ana C C Reis
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Julia Stein
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Beatriz R Paschoalini
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jéssica N Bueno
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Suyane da Silva Moreira
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alana R Godoi
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vanessa C Fioravante
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francisco E Martinez
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patrícia F F Pinheiro
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Arielle C Arena
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil; Information and Toxicological Assistance Center (CIATOX), Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, University Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil
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Bukowska B, Mokra K, Michałowicz J. Benzo[a]pyrene—Environmental Occurrence, Human Exposure, and Mechanisms of Toxicity. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23116348. [PMID: 35683027 PMCID: PMC9181839 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is the main representative of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and has been repeatedly found in the air, surface water, soil, and sediments. It is present in cigarette smoke as well as in food products, especially when smoked and grilled. Human exposure to B[a]P is therefore common. Research shows growing evidence concerning toxic effects induced by this substance. This xenobiotic is metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP P450) to carcinogenic metabolite: 7β,8α-dihydroxy-9α,10α-epoxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene (BPDE), which creates DNA adducts, causing mutations and malignant transformations. Moreover, B[a]P is epigenotoxic, neurotoxic, and teratogenic, and exhibits pro-oxidative potential and causes impairment of animals’ fertility. CYP P450 is strongly involved in B[a]P metabolism, and it is simultaneously expressed as a result of the association of B[a]P with aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), playing an essential role in the cancerogenic potential of various xenobiotics. In turn, polymorphism of CYP P450 genes determines the sensitivity of the organism to B[a]P. It was also observed that B[a]P facilitates the multiplication of viruses, which may be an additional problem with the widespread COVID-19 pandemic. Based on publications mainly from 2017 to 2022, this paper presents the occurrence of B[a]P in various environmental compartments and human surroundings, shows the exposure of humans to this substance, and describes the mechanisms of its toxicity.
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Potentially Toxic Elements’ Contamination of Soils Affected by Mining Activities in the Portuguese Sector of the Iberian Pyrite Belt and Optional Remediation Actions: A Review. ENVIRONMENTS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/environments9010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Both sectors of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, Portuguese and Spanish, have been exploited since ancient times, but more intensively during and after the second half of the 19th century. Large volumes of polymetallic sulfide ore were extracted in open pits or in underground works, processed without environmental concerns, and the generated waste rocks and tailings were simply deposited in the area. Many of these mining sites were abandoned for years under the action of erosive agents, leading to the spread of trace elements and the contamination of soils, waters and sediments. Some of these mine sites have been submitted to rehabilitation actions, mostly using constructive techniques to dig and contain the contaminated tailings and other waste materials, but the remaining soil still needs to be treated with the best available techniques to recover its ecosystem functions. Besides the degraded physical structure and poor nutritional status of these soils, they have common characteristics, as a consequence of the pyrite oxidation and acid drainage produced, such as a high concentration of trace elements and low pH, which must be considered in the remediation plans. This manuscript aims to review the results from studies which have already covered these topics in the Iberian Pyrite Belt, especially in its Portuguese sector, considering: (i) soils’ physicochemical characteristics; (ii) potentially toxic trace elements’ concentration; and (iii) sustainable remediation technologies to cope with this type of soil contamination. Phytostabilization, after the amelioration of the soil’s properties with organic and inorganic amendments, was investigated at the lab and field scale by several authors, and their results were also considered.
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Egendorf SP, Spliethoff HM, Shayler HA, Russell-Anelli J, Cheng Z, Minsky AH, King T, McBride MB. Soil lead (Pb) and urban grown lettuce: Sources, processes, and implications for gardener best management practices. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 286:112211. [PMID: 33667819 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Urban community gardeners employ a range of best practices that limit crop contamination by toxicants like lead (Pb). While Pb root uptake is generally low, the relative significance of various Pb deposition processes and the effectiveness of best practices in reducing these processes have not been sufficiently characterized. This study compared leafy lettuce (Lactuca sativa) grown in high Pb (1150 mg/kg) and low Pb (90 mg/kg) soils, under three different soil cover conditions: 1) bare soil, 2) mulch cover to limit splash, and 3) mulch cover under hoophouses to limit splash and air deposition, in a New York City (NYC) community garden and a rural site in Ithaca, New York (NY). The lettuces were further compared to greenhouse (Ithaca) and supermarket (NYC) samples. Atmospheric deposition was monitored by passive trap collection through funnel samplers. Results show that in low Pb soils, splash and atmospheric deposition accounted for 84 and 78% of lettuce Pb in NYC and Ithaca, respectively. In high Pb soils, splash and atmospheric deposition accounted for 88 and 93% of Pb on lettuces, with splash being the dominant mechanism. Soil covers were shown to be effective at significantly (p < 0.05) reducing lettuce Pb contamination, and mulching is strongly recommended as a best practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Perl Egendorf
- Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2900 Bedford Ave, Brooklyn, NY, 11210, USA; The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 365 5th Ave, New York, 10016, USA; The Advanced Science Research Center at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, Environmental Sciences Initiative, 85 St. Nicholas Terrace, New York, 10031, USA.
| | - Henry M Spliethoff
- Center for Environmental Health, New York State Department of Health, Corning Tower Room 1743, Empire State Plaza, Albany, NY, 12237, USA
| | - Hannah A Shayler
- Cornell University, School of Integrative Plant Science, Soil and Crop Sciences Section, 233 Emerson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jonathan Russell-Anelli
- Cornell University, School of Integrative Plant Science, Soil and Crop Sciences Section, 233 Emerson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Zhongqi Cheng
- Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2900 Bedford Ave, Brooklyn, NY, 11210, USA; The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 365 5th Ave, New York, 10016, USA
| | - Anna Heming Minsky
- Brooklyn College of the City University of New York, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2900 Bedford Ave, Brooklyn, NY, 11210, USA
| | - Thomas King
- New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets, 6 Harriman Campus Road, Albany, NY, 11206, USA
| | - Murray B McBride
- Cornell University, School of Integrative Plant Science, Soil and Crop Sciences Section, 233 Emerson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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Byers HL, McHenry LJ, Grundl TJ. Increased risk for lead exposure in children through consumption of produce grown in urban soils. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 743:140414. [PMID: 32659566 PMCID: PMC7492482 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Childhood Pb exposure is associated with a multitude of poor health outcomes. In food-insecure areas, growing fresh produce in backyard gardens or on vacant industrial properties is seen as an option for parents. The question arises, could Pb accumulate in consumable tissues of common produce when grown in metals-rich soils at concentrations that would pose a risk to children. This study investigated factors contributing to the accumulation of Pb in consumable tissues of nine common produce crops grown in metals-rich soils from backyard gardens and a former industrial property. Pb in consumable tissues was directly quantified at concentrations less than 1 μg g-1 via X-ray fluorescence (XRF) using protocols specifically developed for use in plant matrices. The accumulation of Pb in prepared raw consumable tissues in three Pb-rich soils was the greatest in modified taproot crops (mean Pb of 11.8 ± 14.6 μg g-1; turnip, beetroot, radish, carrot), with lesser concentrations in fruits (mean Pb of 2.0 ± 3.0 μg g-1; tomato, pepper), and potatoes (mean Pb of 0.7 ± 1.1 μg g-1). An exposure risk evaluation using the USFDA IRL for Pb indicates that consumption of less than 1 g of certain produce grown in this study, including produce grown in garden soils from residential properties, drastically increases the risk of Pb exposure in children. This study further indicates that the proportion of Pb contributed to the daily body burden in children from food is far greater than previously understood, and in all modeled cases, the contribution of Pb from food on a daily basis far outweighs the contribution of Pb from drinking water. For an average child, after addressing over-riding soil/dust impacts, addressing food quality is critical to minimizing Pb exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harris L Byers
- University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Department of Geosciences, 3209 North Maryland Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA
| | - Lindsay J McHenry
- University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Department of Geosciences, 3209 North Maryland Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA
| | - Timothy J Grundl
- University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Department of Geosciences, 3209 North Maryland Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
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Batjiaka R, Brown S. Creating topsoils and soil conditioners from biosolids and urban residuals. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2020; 49:1020-1031. [PMID: 33016488 DOI: 10.1002/jeq2.20067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A study was conducted to test the suitability of a range of organic and inorganic residuals mixed with municipal biosolids to create a soil amendment effective for a broad range of end uses. Biosolids suitable for unrestricted use were sourced from San Francisco, CA. Residuals including urban wood and yard waste, nut shells, biochar, and sawdust were sourced from nearby producers. Existing biosolids based soil products, peat, and a yard-food compost were used as controls. Experimental mixtures were tested for a range of soil properties, appearance, odor, germination, and growth response. Several mixtures performed as well as or better than the yard-food compost, and several performed comparably to the biosolids soil controls. Yard waste fines blended with biosolids in a 50:50 ratio by volume or yard waste fines blended with biosolids and 20% sand at 40:40:20 were highly effective across all measured indices. Mixed yard and recycled lumber fines blended with biosolids at these same ratios performed similarly well. Blends with a high percentage of char performed poorly in germination and growth response, likely as a result of elevated electrical conductivity. Certain blends such as gypsum and redwood shavings failed to mix well with biosolids to create a uniform looking material and were less visually appealing. In general, blends that met established quality control parameters for compost performed well on the measured indices. These results suggest that blending Class A biosolids with organic and inorganic feedstocks to meet quality criteria developed for compost will create marketable soil products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Batjiaka
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Sally Brown
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
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Sivakoff FS, Prajzner SP, Gardiner MM. Urban heavy metal contamination limits bumblebee colony growth. J Appl Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mary M. Gardiner
- Department of Entomology The Ohio State University Columbus OH USA
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Yu H, Li T, Liu Y, Ma L. Spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination in urban soil of China. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 230:498-509. [PMID: 31125878 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Soil pollution is becoming increasingly prominent and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are key pollutants in urban areas. Understanding the sources of PAH pollution is an effective step toward its control and reduction. The main purpose of this review was to collate the spatial distribution, pollution level, pollution sources, and potential risks of PAHs in urban soils of different regions of China. Relevant data of PAH soil contamination in Chinese provinces and cities were extracted from studies published from 2000 to 2018. The concentrations of total PAHs (Σ16PAHs) ranged from 65.01 to 23603.05 μg/kg for urban soils with a mean of 2801.98 μg/kg. According to the Maliszewska-Kordybach classification criteria, about 47% of the regions of China were heavily contaminated, 23% of the regions were contaminated, and 17% of the regions were weakly contaminated, while only 13% of regions were not contaminated. Based on the results of the total PAHs data from 30 provinces and cities and the results of individual compounds from 27 cities, 18 provinces and cities were classified as "severely" contaminated with a Nemero Comprehensive Index (PI) > 3.0. The results of this review indicate that the main sources of PAH pollution in urban soils of China are coal combustion and automobile exhaust emissions, followed by oil, biomass, and coke tar combustion. This review comprehensively collates the spatial distribution of PAH concentration, their composition, and dominant sources in urban soils of North and South China. Coal and oil combustion contribute more to total PAHs in North China while vehicle emissions and biomass combustion contribute more in South China. This regional difference suggests that PAH pollution in urban soils is a side-effect of a combination of regional development levels and human activities, which differ between North and South China. Risk assessment based on the benzo[a]pyrene toxicity equivalent factor indicates that the concentration of PAHs is low in most parts of China; however, several sensitive areas should receive increased attention. This review aims to provide improved decision-making support toward soil pollution control and monitoring based on the distribution and main pollution sources of PAHs in urban soil of China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Yu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Tiejun Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Ying Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Limin Ma
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092, China.
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Wu S, Zhou S, Bao H, Chen D, Wang C, Li B, Tong G, Yuan Y, Xu B. Improving risk management by using the spatial interaction relationship of heavy metals and PAHs in urban soil. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 364:108-116. [PMID: 30342290 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.09.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Identifying combined pollution risk areas is difficult because of the complex pollutant sources and heterogeneous soil properties in urban systems. This study used bivariate local Moran's I to analyze the spatial interaction between heavy metals and PAHs, revealed the causes of spatial interaction patterns through PMF, and proposed a risk zoning approach for combined pollution in urban areas. The results showed that both heavy metals and PAHs had high spatial heterogeneity in urban soil. Bivariate LISA maps revealed the spatial interactions between heavy metals and PAHs. The historical area was the hotspot of combined pollution. The overlay of pollutant sources and sinks was responsible for the spatial interaction patterns of combined organic and inorganic pollution. Coal consumption was the main emission source for heavy metal and PAHs pollution, accounting for 31% and 21%, respectively. We used bivariate LISA as the auxiliary variable to reduce the uncertainty of identification combined pollution risk zones. More than 11% of the total area clustered significantly where concentration of both heavy metals and PAHs ware in excess of the risk threshold. This study indicates that we can provide better decision-making support for soil risk management based on the knowledge derived from spatial interaction analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Wu
- Institute of land and urban-rural development, Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics, Hangzhou 310018, PR China.
| | - Shenglu Zhou
- School of Geographic and Oceanographic Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Haijun Bao
- Institute of land and urban-rural development, Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics, Hangzhou 310018, PR China.
| | - Dongxiang Chen
- Institute of land and urban-rural development, Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics, Hangzhou 310018, PR China
| | - Chunhui Wang
- School of Geographic and Oceanographic Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Baojie Li
- School of Geographic and Oceanographic Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Guijie Tong
- Institute of land and urban-rural development, Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics, Hangzhou 310018, PR China; School of Geographic and Oceanographic Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Yujie Yuan
- Institute of land and urban-rural development, Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics, Hangzhou 310018, PR China; School of Geographic and Oceanographic Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Baogen Xu
- Institute of land and urban-rural development, Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics, Hangzhou 310018, PR China
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