In silico and in vitro studies of lupeol and iso-orientin as potential antidiabetic agents in a rat model

Medicinal plants of Southeast Asia with anti-α-glucosidase activity as potential source for type-2 diabetes mellitus treatment

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Diabetes mellitus, a widespread chronic illness, affects millions worldwide, and its incidence is increasing alarmingly, especially in developing nations. Current pharmacological treatments can be costly and have undesirable side effects. To address this, medicinal plants with antidiabetic effects, particularly targeting α-glucosidase for controlling hyperglycaemia in type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), hold promise for drug development with reduced toxicity and adverse reactions.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

This review aims to succinctly collect information about medicinal plant extracts that exhibit antidiabetic potential through α-glucosidase inhibition using acarbose as a standard reference in Southeast Asia. The characteristics of this inhibition are based on in vitro studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant information on medicinal plants in Southeast Asia, along with α-glucosidase inhibition studies using acarbose as a positive control, was gathered from various scientific databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

About 49 papers were found from specific counties in Southeast Asia demonstrated notable α-glucosidase inhibitory potential of their medicinal plants, with several plant extracts showcasing activity comparable to or surpassing that of acarbose. Notably, 19 active constituents were identified for their α-glucosidase inhibitory effects.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings underscore the antidiabetic potential of the tested medicinal plant extracts, indicating their promise as alternative treatments for T2DM. This review can aid in the development of potent therapeutic medicines with increased effectiveness and safety for the treatment of T2DM.

A Triterpenoid Lupeol as an Antioxidant and Anti-Neuroinflammatory Agent: Impacts on Oxidative Stress in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease illustrated by neuronal dysfunctions, leading to memory weaknesses and personality changes mostly in the aged population worldwide. The exact cause of AD is unclear, but numerous studies have addressed the involvement of oxidative stress (OS), induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS), to be one of the leading causes in developing AD. OS dysregulates the cellular homeostasis, causing abnormal protein and lipid metabolism. Nutrition plays a pivotal role in modulating the antioxidant system and decreases the neuronal ROS level, thus playing an important therapeutic role in neurodegenerative diseases, especially in AD. Hence, medicinal herbs and their extracts have received global attention as a commercial source of antioxidants Lupeol. Lupeol is a pentacyclic triterpenoid and has many biological functions. It is available in fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants. It has shown effective antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and higher blood-brain barrier permeability. Also, the binding and inhibitory potentials of Lupeol have been investigated and proved to be effective against certain receptor proteins and enzymes in AD studies by computational molecular docking approaches. Therefore, AD-related research has gained interest in investigating the therapeutic effects of Lupeol. However, despite its beneficial effects in AD, there is still a lack of research in Lupeol. Hence, we compiled in this analysis all preclinical research that looked at Lupeol as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent for AD.

Mechanistic Insights into the Neuroprotective Potential of Sacred Ficus Trees

Ficus religiosa (Bo tree or sacred fig) and Ficus benghalensis (Indian banyan) are of immense spiritual and therapeutic importance. Various parts of these trees have been investigated for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepatoprotective, dermoprotective, and nephroprotective properties. Previous reviews of Ficus mostly discussed traditional usages, photochemistry, and pharmacological activities, though comprehensive reviews of the neuroprotective potential of these Ficus species extracts and/or their important phytocompounds are lacking. The interesting phytocompounds from these trees include many bengalenosides, carotenoids, flavonoids (leucopelargonidin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, cetyl behenate, and α-amyrin acetate), flavonols (kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin), leucocyanidin, phytosterols (bergapten, bergaptol, lanosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol), terpenes (α-thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, limonene, β-ocimene, β-bourbonene, β-caryophyllene, α-trans-bergamotene, α-copaene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, alloaromadendrene, germacrene, γ-cadinene, and δ-cadinene), and diverse polyphenols (tannin, wax, saponin, leucoanthocyanin), contributing significantly to their pharmacological effects, ranging from antimicrobial action to neuroprotection. This review presents extensive mechanistic insights into the neuroprotective potential, especially important phytochemicals from F. religiosa and F. benghalensis. Owing to the complex pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs), the currently existing drugs merely alleviate the symptoms. Hence, bioactive compounds with potent neuroprotective effects through a multitarget approach would be of great interest in developing pharmacophores for the treatment of NDDs.

Pharmacologically Active Phytomolecules Isolated from Traditional Antidiabetic Plants and Their Therapeutic Role for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic complication that affects people of all ages. The increased prevalence of diabetes worldwide has led to the development of several synthetic drugs to tackle this health problem. Such drugs, although effective as antihyperglycemic agents, are accompanied by various side effects, costly, and inaccessible to the majority of people living in underdeveloped countries. Medicinal plants have been used traditionally throughout the ages to treat various ailments due to their availability and safe nature. Medicinal plants are a rich source of phytochemicals that possess several health benefits. As diabetes continues to become prevalent, health care practitioners are considering plant-based medicines as a potential source of antidiabetic drugs due to their high potency and fewer side effects. To better understand the mechanism of action of medicinal plants, their active phytoconstituents are being isolated and investigated thoroughly. In this review article, we have focused on pharmacologically active phytomolecules isolated from medicinal plants presenting antidiabetic activity and the role they play in the treatment and management of diabetes. These natural compounds may represent as good candidates for a novel therapeutic approach and/or effective and alternative therapies for diabetes.

Chemical and Pharmacological Profiling of Wrightia coccinea (Roxb. Ex Hornem.) Sims Focusing Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, Antidiarrheal, Hypoglycemic, and Analgesic Properties

The aim of the study was to conduct phytochemical and pharmacological investigations of Wrightia coccinea (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Sims via several in vitro, in vivo, and in silico models. A total of four compounds were identified and isolated from the methanol extract of the bark and the methanol extract of the seed pulp of W. coccinea through successive chromatographic techniques and were characterized as 3β-acetyloxy-olean-12-en-28-ol (1), wrightiadione (2), 22β-hydroxylupeol (3), and β-sitosterol (4) by spectroscopic analysis. The aqueous fraction of the bark and chloroform fraction of the fruits provided the most potent antioxidant capacity (IC50 = 7.22 and 4.5 µg/mL, respectively) in DPPH free radical scavenging assay compared with the standard ascorbic acid (IC50 = 17.45 µg/mL). The methanol bark extract and the methanol fruit coat extract exerted anti-diarrheal activity by inhibiting 74.55 ± 0.67% and 77.78 ± 1.5% (mean ± SEM) of the diarrheal episode in mice, respectively, after four hours of loading the samples. In the hypoglycemic test, the methanol bark extract and the methanol fruit coat extract (400 mg/kg) produced a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in the blood glucose level in mice. Both doses of the plant extracts (200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg) used in the study induced a significant (p < 0.05) increase in pain reaction time. The in vitro and in vivo findings were supported by the computational studies. The isolated compounds exhibited higher binding affinity compared with the standard drugs towards the active binding sites of glutathione reductase, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), kappa opioid receptor, glucose transporter 3 (GLUT 3), Mu opioid receptor, and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) proteins due to their potent antioxidant, cytotoxic, anti-diarrheal, hypoglycemic, and central and peripheral analgesic properties, respectively. The current findings concluded that W. coccinea might be a potential natural source for managing oxidative stress, diarrhea, hyperglycemia, and pain. Further studies are warranted for extensively phytochemical screening and establishing exact mechanisms of action.

In vitro comparison of various antioxidants and flavonoids from Rooibos as beta cell protectants against lipotoxicity and oxidative stress-induced cell death

Oxidative stress and lipotoxicity effects on pancreatic β cells play a major role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Flavonoids and antioxidants are under study for their cytoprotective effects and antidiabetic potential. In this study, we aimed to compare the protective effect of the Rooibos components aspalathin, isoorientin, 3-hydroxyphloretin (3-OH) and green Rooibos extract (GRT) itself, and exendin-4 and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) as reference molecules, against lipotoxicity and oxidative stress. The insulin-producing β cell line INS1E was exposed to hydrogen peroxide or streptozotocin (STZ) to induce oxidative stress, and palmitate to induce lipotoxicity. Cell viability was assessed by a MTS cell viability assay. Antioxidant response and antiapoptotic gene expression was performed by qRT-PCR. Glucose transporter 2 (GLUT 2) transporter inhibition was assessed through 2-NBDG uptake. GRT and the flavonoids aspalathin and 3-hydroxyphloretin offered significant protection against oxidative stress and lipotoxicity. GRT downregulated expression of pro-apoptotic genes Txnip and Ddit3. The flavonoids aspalathin and 3-hydroxyphloretin also downregulated these genes and in addition upregulated expression of antioxidant response genes Hmox1, Nqo1 and Sod1. Isoorientin gave no cytoprotection. Cytoprotection by Rooibos components was significantly higher than by NAC or exendin-4. Rooibos components strongly protect INS1E β cells against diabetogenic stress. Cytoprotection was associated with the upregulation of antioxidant response genes of the NRF2/KEAP1 pathway or suppression of the TXN system. The Rooibos molecules offered better protection against these insults than exendin-4 and NAC, making them interesting candidates as β cell cytoprotectants for therapeutic or nutraceutical applications.

Molecular pharmacology and therapeutic advances of the pentacyclic triterpene lupeol

BACKGROUND

Plant triterpenoids are major sources of nutraceuticals that provide many health benefits to humans. Lupeol is one of the pentacyclic dietary triterpenoids commonly found in many fruits and vegetables, which is highly investigated for its pharmacological effect and benefit to human health.

PURPOSE

This systematic review critically discussed the potential pharmacological benefits of lupeol and its derivatives as evidenced by various cellular and animal model studies. To gain insight into the pharmacological effects of lupeol, the network pharmacological approach is applied. Pharmacokinetics and recent developments in nanotechnology-based approaches to targeted delivery of lupeol along with its safety use are also discussed.

METHODS

This study is dependent on the systematic and non-exhaustive literature survey for related research articles, papers, and books on the chemistry, pharmacological benefits, pharmacokinetics, and safety of lupeol published between 2011 and 2021. For online materials, the popular academic search engines viz. Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, ResearchGate, Springer, as well as official websites were explored with selected keywords.

RESULTS

Lupeol has shown promising benefits in the management of cancer and many other human diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, kidney and liver problems, skin diseases, and neurological disorders. The pharmacological effects of lupeol primarily rely on its capacity to revitalize the cellular antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic mechanisms. Network pharmacological approach revealed some prospective molecular targets and pathways and presented some significant information that could help explain the pharmacological effects of lupeol and its derivatives. Despite significant progress in molecular pharmacology, the clinical application of lupeol is limited due to poor bioavailability and insufficient knowledge on its mode of action. Structural modification and nanotechnology-guided targeted delivery of lupeol improve the bioavailability and bioactivity of lupeol.

CONCLUSION

The pentacyclic triterpene lupeol possesses numerous human health-benefiting properties. This review updates current knowledge and critically discusses the pharmacological effects and potential applications of lupeol and its derivatives in human health and diseases. Future studies are needed to evaluate the efficacies of lupeol and its derivatives in the management and pathobiology of human diseases.

Apoptotic, Anti-Inflammatory Activities and Interference with the Glucocorticoid Receptor Signaling of Fractions from Pistacia lentiscus L. var. chia Leaves

In this study acetonic extracts of leaves of Pistacia lentiscus L. var. chia (mastiha tree) grown in the south as well as in the north Chios Greek island were isolated and further fractionated to give three different polarity fractions: apolar, medium-polar, and polar. The isolated fractions were assessed as regards their main composition, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory activities, and interference with the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling, applying cytotoxic assay, luciferase assays, and Western blot analysis of apoptosis-, energy-, and inflammation-associated molecules. Differences in cell viability have been detected among different polarity leaf fractions as well as among fractions of different plant origin with polar fractions showing the highest cytotoxicity. Fractions-induced anti-inflammatory activities and suppressive effects on the dexamethasone (DEX)-induced GR transcriptional activation were unveiled. The partition protocol of leaves fractions applied uncovers the enhanced glucocorticoid-associated biological activities of the medium-polar fractions, which may be associated with their enrichment in the triterpenoids that showed structural similarity with the glucocorticoids. A reduction in GR protein levels is observed by the fraction which is shown to be associated with the medium polar-induced proteolytic degradation of the receptor. In addition, the enhanced cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and potential anti-glycemic activities of the fractions from the Southern P. lentiscus L. that exclusively produce the mastiha resin, is revealed, indicating that leaves fractions from mastiha tree, similarly to mastiha tree resin, may have the potential to be further analyzed for their potent applications in the pharmaceutical cosmetic and nutraceutical fields.

Molecular Structure-Based Screening of the Constituents of Calotropis procera Identifies Potential Inhibitors of Diabetes Mellitus Target Alpha Glucosidase

Diabetes mellitus is a disorder characterized by higher levels of blood glucose due to impaired insulin mechanisms. Alpha glucosidase is a critical drug target implicated in the mechanisms of diabetes mellitus and its inhibition controls hyperglycemia. Since the existing standard synthetic drugs have therapeutic limitations, it is imperative to identify new potent inhibitors of natural product origin which may slow carbohydrate digestion and absorption via alpha glucosidase. Since plant extracts from Calotropis procera have been extensively used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, the present study used molecular docking and dynamics simulation techniques to screen its constituents against the receptor alpha glucosidase. Taraxasterol, syriogenin, isorhamnetin-3-O-robinobioside and calotoxin were identified as potential novel lead compounds with plausible binding energies of −40.2, −35.1, −34.3 and −34.3 kJ/mol against alpha glucosidase, respectively. The residues Trp⁴⁸¹, Asp⁵¹⁸, Leu⁶⁷⁷, Leu⁶⁷⁸ and Leu⁶⁸⁰ were identified as critical for binding and the compounds were predicted as alpha glucosidase inhibitors. Structurally similar compounds with Tanimoto coefficients greater than 0.7 were reported experimentally to be inhibitors of alpha glucosidase or antidiabetic. The structures of the molecules may serve as templates for the design of novel inhibitors and warrant in vitro assaying to corroborate their antidiabetic potential.

Hypoglycemic and Vasorelaxant Effect of Passiflora edulis Fruit Peel By-Product

Passiflora edulis fo. flavicarpa (Passifloraceae) is popularly known as yellow passion fruit and its fruit peels are considered a rich by-product in bioactive compounds which has greatly beneficial health properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of P. edulis fruit peel extracts in a type 1 diabetes model and the potential vasorelaxant effect. The aqueous and hydroethanolic extracts were obtained from P. edulis fruit peels and orientin and isorientin flavonoids were identified in both extracts through ultra-high performance liquid chromatography. Pectin was only identified in the aqueous extract by high-performance steric exclusion chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance. Regarding the vascular system, the hydroethanolic extract showed better vasorelaxant effects in the mesenteric artery rings when compared to the aqueous extract. These effects mainly occur by opening the potassium channels. In the type 1 diabetes model, extracts at doses of 400 and 600 mg/kg were able to restore the effect of insulin in diabetic rats which were not responding to its action. The antidiabetic effect was more significant for the aqueous extract. Thus, the results suggest that the hydroethanolic and aqueous extracts have greater potential to be used to treat cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and as a hypoglycemic agent, respectively. Taken together, P. edulis fruit peel extracts proved to be a source of valuable bioactive raw material to produce nutraceuticals or pharmaceutical products.

Antioxidant Activity, α-Glucosidase Inhibition and UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS Profile of Shmar (Arbutus pavarii Pamp)

The genus Arbutus (Ericaceae) has been traditionally used in folk medicine due to its phytomedicinal properties, especially Arbutus pavarii Pamp. However, this plant has not been evaluated for its efficacy, quality, and consistency to support the traditional uses, potentially in treating diabetes. Despite previous studies that revealed the biological activities of A. pavarii as antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory agents, scientific reports on the bioactive compounds that contribute to its health benefits are still scarce. Therefore, this research focused on the evaluation of antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of the methanol crude extracts and various fractions of the leaf and stem bark, as well as on metabolite profiling of the methanol crude extracts. The extracts and fractions were evaluated for total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid (TFC) contents, as well as the DPPH free radical scavenging, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. Methanol crude extracts of the leaf and stem bark were then subjected to UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS. To the best of our knowledge, the comparative evaluation of the antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of the leaf and stem bark of A. pavarii, as well as of the respective solvent fractions, is reported herein for the first time. Out of these extracts, the methanolic crude extracts and polar fractions (ethyl acetate and butanol fractions) showed significant bioactivities. The DPPH free radical and α-glucosidase inhibitions was highest in the leaf ethyl acetate fraction, with IC₅₀ of 6.39 and 4.93 µg/mL, respectively, while the leaf methanol crude extract and butanol fraction exhibited the highest FRAP with 82.95 and 82.17 mmol Fe (II)/g extract. The UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis resulted in the putative identification of a total of 76 compounds from the leaf and stem bark, comprising a large proportion of plant phenolics (flavonoids and phenolic acids), terpenoids, and fatty acid derivatives. Results from the present study showed that the different parts of A. pavarii had potent antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities, which could potentially prevent oxidative damage or diabetes-related problems. These findings may strengthen the traditional claim on the medicinal value of A. pavarii.

Gundelia tournefortii: Fractionation, Chemical Composition and GLUT4 Translocation Enhancement in Muscle Cell Line

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic metabolic disease, which could affect the daily life of patients and increase their risk of developing other diseases. Synthetic anti-diabetic drugs usually show severe side effects. In the last few decades, plant-derived drugs have been intensively studied, particularly because of a rapid development of the instruments used in analytical chemistry. We tested the efficacy of Gundelia tournefortii L. (GT) in increasing the translocation of glucose transporter-4 (GLUT4) to the myocyte plasma membrane (PM), as a main strategy to manage T2D. In this study, GT methanol extract was sub-fractionated into 10 samples using flash chromatography. The toxicity of the fractions on L6 muscle cells, stably expressing GLUTmyc, was evaluated using the MTT assay. The efficacy with which GLUT4 was attached to the L6 PM was evaluated at non-toxic concentrations. Fraction 6 was the most effective, as it stimulated GLUT4 translocation in the absence and presence of insulin, 3.5 and 5.2 times (at 250 μg/mL), respectively. Fraction 1 and 3 showed no significant effects on GLUT4 translocation, while other fractions increased GLUT4 translocation up to 2.0 times. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of silylated fractions revealed 98 distinct compounds. Among those compounds, 25 were considered anti-diabetic and glucose disposal agents. These findings suggest that GT methanol sub-fractions exert an anti-diabetic effect by modulating GLUT4 translocation in L6 muscle cells, and indicate the potential of GT extracts as novel therapeutic agents for T2D.

An Integrative Pharmacology-Based Approach for Evaluating the Potential Effects of Purslane Seed in Diabetes Mellitus Treatment Using UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap and TCMIP V2.0

Portulaca oleracea L., known as the “vegetable for long life,” is an annual succulent herb that is widely distributed worldwide. Many clinical and experimental studies have demonstrated that purslane seed (MCXZ) can be used as an adjunctive and alternative therapy for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM). However, the underlying active constituents and pharmacological mechanisms through which MCXZ exerts effects in DM remain unclear. In the present study, we confirmed that MCXZ treatment resulted in hypoglycemic activity, lowering the fasting blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Then, ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry was used to systematically analyze the chemical profile of MCXZ, resulting in the identification of 84 constituents, including 31 organic acids and nine flavonoids. Finally, the Integrative Pharmacology-based Research Platform of Traditional Chinese Medicine was employed to analyze the key active components of MCXZ and the molecular mechanisms through which these components acted in DM. Ten key active compounds were identified based on the topological importance of their corresponding putative targets within the known DM-associated therapeutic target network of known MCXZ putative targets. Functionally, these candidate targets play critical anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-hyperglycemia, immunity regulation, and inflammatory roles involving DM-related pathways, such as the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling pathway and Fc gamma R-mediated phagocytosis, which indicated that MCXZ exhibited anti-diabetic activity through multi-faced actions.

Lupeol and its derivatives as anticancer and anti-inflammatory agents: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic efficacy

Lupeol is a natural triterpenoid that widely exists in edible fruits and vegetables, and medicinal plants. In the last decade, a plethora of studies on the pharmacological activities of lupeol have been conducted and have demonstrated that lupeol possesses an extensive range of pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. Pharmacokinetic studies have indicated that absorption of lupeol by animals was rapid despite its nonpolar characteristics, and lupeol belongs to class II BCS (biopharmaceutics classification system) compounds. Moreover, the bioactivities of some isolated or synthesized lupeol derivatives have been investigated, and these results showed that, with modification to C-3 or C-19, some derivatives exhibit stronger activities, e.g., antiprotozoal or anticancer activity. This review aims to summarize the advances in pharmacological and pharmacokinetic studies of lupeol in the last decade with an emphasis on its anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities, as well as the research progress of lupeol derivatives thus far, to provide researchers with the latest information, point out the limitations of relevant research at the current stage and the aspects that should be strengthened in future research.

In vitro neuroprotective potential of terpenes from industrial orange juice by-products

Citrus sinensis (orange) by-products represent one of the most abundant citric residues from orange juice industrial production, and are a promising source of health-promoting compounds like terpenes. In this work, different extraction solvents have been employed to increase terpene extraction yield and selectivity from this orange juice by-product. A set of bioactivity assays including enzymatic (acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butylcholinesterase (BChE) and lipoxygenase (LOX)) as well as antioxidant (ABTS, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS)) activity tests have been applied to investigate the neuroprotective potential of these compounds. New fluorescence-based methodologies were developed for AChE and BChE assays to overcome the drawbacks of these tests when used in vitro to determine the anticholinergic activity of colored extracts. Comprehensive phytochemical profiling based on gas chromatography coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (GC-qTOF-MS) analysis showed ahigh content of mono- and sesquiterpenes in the extracts obtained with ethyl acetate, whereas n-heptane extracts exhibited a large amount of triterpenes and carotenoids. From a neuroprotective activity point of view, ethyl acetate extract is the most promising due to its anticholinergic activity and antioxidant capacity. Finally, a multivariate data analysis revealed a good correlation between some monoterpenes (e.g. nerol or limonene) and the antioxidant capacity of the natural extract, while a group of sesquiterpenes (e.g.δ-Cadinene or nootkatone) showed correlation with the observed AChE, BChE and LOX inhibition capacity. Hydrocarbons mono- and sesquiterpenoids reveal high capacity in vitro to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB).

Ancient wheats: beneficial effects on insulin resistance

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus are two conditions that commonly exist together in the context of the metabolic syndrome. Several scientific advances in understanding this association have identified insulin resistance as the key point in the pathogenesis of both diseases. The first line treatment suggested in the management of these diseases is represented by lifestyle changes and in particular the modification of alimentary regimen, with the transition to a healthy diet. In this context, several studies have focused their attention on the identification of food products with beneficial actions, like ancient wheat (AW). AW are defined as the early cereals that were domesticated in their places of origin in the "Fertile Crescent" of the Middle East, and played a central role as a main source of food for the early civilizations in that region. The present narrative review aims to provide a systematic overview of the state of the art on the effects of AW on insulin resistance.

Impact of Isoorientin on Metabolic Activity and Lipid Accumulation in Differentiated Adipocytes

The current study explored the effect of isoorientin on the metabolic activity and lipid accumulation in fully differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. To achieve this, the 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were differentiated for eight days and treated with various concentrations of isoorientin (0.1–100 μM) for four hours. Subsequently, the metabolic activity, lipid accumulation, and mitochondrial respiration were assessed. Furthermore, to unravel the molecular mechanisms that might elucidate the bioactivity of isoorientin, protein expression of the genes involved in insulin signaling and energy expenditure, such as AKT and AMPK, were investigated. The results showed that isoorientin, at different doses, could block lipid storage and enhance glycerol release, with a concomitant improvement of the metabolic activity and mitochondrial function. Although the observed beneficial effects of isoorientin on these cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes were not consistent at all concentrations, it was clear that doses between 1 and 10 μM were most effective compared to the untreated control. Moreover, the activity of isoorientin was comparable to tested positive controls of CL-316,2431, isoproterenol, insulin, and metformin. Mechanistically, protein expression of AKT and AMPK, was enhanced with isoorientin exposure, suggesting their partial role in modulating lipid metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis. Indeed, our results showed that isoorientin has the ability to enhance mitochondrial respiration, as we observed an increase in the ATP and oxygen consumption rate. Therefore, we concluded that isoorientin has a potential to impact mitochondrial activity, lipid metabolism and energy expenditure using an in vitro experimental model of obesity.