Cinnamaldehyde Treatment of Prostate Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Prevents Their Inhibitory Effect on T Cells Through Toll-Like Receptor 4

Biological fate, functional properties, and design strategies for oral delivery systems for cinnamaldehyde

Cinnamaldehyde (CA) is the main bioactive component extracted from the internal bark of cinnamon trees with many health benefits. In this paper, the bioavailability and biological activities of cinnamaldehyde, and the underlying molecular mechanism are reviewed and discussed, including antioxidant, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anticancer, and antibacterial properties. Common delivery systems that could improve the stability and bioavailability of CA are also summarized and evaluated, such as micelles, microcapsules, liposomes, nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions. This work provides a comprehensive understanding of the beneficial functions and delivery strategies of CA, which is useful for the future application of CA in the functional food industry.

Therapeutic Effects of Essential Oils and Their Bioactive Compounds on Prostate Cancer Treatment

Since prostate cancer (PCa) relies on limited therapies, more effective alternatives are required. Essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive compounds are natural products that have many properties including anticancer activity. This review covers studies published between 2000 and 2023 and discusses the anti-prostate cancer mechanisms of the EOs from several plant species and their main bioactive compounds. It also provides a critical perspective regarding the challenges to be overcome until they reach the market. EOs from chamomile, cinnamon, Citrus species, turmeric, Cymbopogon species, ginger, lavender, Mentha species, rosemary, Salvia species, thyme and other species have been tested in different PCa cell lines and have shown excellent results, including the inhibition of cell growth and migration, the induction of apoptosis, modulation in the expression of apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes and the suppression of angiogenesis. The most challenging aspects of EOs, which limit their clinical uses, are their highly lipophilic nature, physicochemical instability, photosensitivity, high volatility and composition variability. The processing of EO-based products in the pharmaceutical field may be an interesting alternative to circumvent EOs' limitations, resulting in several benefits in their further clinical use. Identifying their bioactive compounds, therapeutic effects and chemical structures could open new perspectives for innovative developments in the field. Moreover, this could be helpful in obtaining versatile chemical synthesis routes and/or biotechnological drug production strategies, providing an accurate, safe and sustainable source of these bioactive compounds, while looking at their use as gold-standard therapy in the close future.

Solid self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SMEDDS) prepared by spray drying to improve the oral bioavailability of cinnamaldehyde (CA)

The aim of this study was to prepare a solid self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SMEDDS) of cinnamaldehyde (CA) by spray drying technique to improve the oral bioavailability of CA. The preparation of CA S-SMEDDS with maltodextrin as the solid carrier, a core-wall material mass ratio of 1:1, a solid content of 20% (w/v), an inlet air temperature of 150 °C, an injection speed of 5.2 mL/min, and an atomization pressure of 0.1 MPa was determined by using the encapsulation rate as the index of investigation. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed the possibility of CA being encapsulated in S-SMEDDS in an amorphous form. The in-vitro release showed that the total amount of CA released by S-SMEDDS was approximately 1.3 times higher than that of the CA suspension. Pharmacokinetic results showed that the relative oral bioavailability of CA S-SMEDDS was also increased to 1.6-fold compared to CA suspension. Additionally, we explored the mechanism of CA uptake and transport of lipid-soluble drugs CA by S-SMEDDS in a Caco-2/HT29 cell co-culture system for the first time. The results showed that CA S-SMEDDS uptake on the co-culture model was mainly an energy-dependent endocytosis mechanism, including lattice protein-mediated endocytosis and vesicle-mediated endocytosis. Transport experiments showed that CA S-SMEDDS significantly increased the permeability of CA in this model. These findings suggested that CA S-SMEDDS is an effective oral solid dosage form for increasing the oral bioavailability of lipid-soluble drug CA.

Microenvironmental regulation in tumor progression: Interactions between cancer-associated fibroblasts and immune cells

The tumor microenvironment (TME), the "soil" on which tumor cells grow, has an important role in regulating the proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells as well as their response to treatment. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), as the most abundant stromal cells of the TME, can not only directly alter the immunosuppressive effect of the TME through their own metabolism, but also influence the aggregation and function of immune cells by secreting a large number of cytokines and chemokines, reducing the body's immune surveillance of tumor cells and making them more prone to immune escape. Our study provides a comprehensive review of fibroblast chemotaxis, malignant transformation, metabolic characteristics, and interactions with immune cells. In addition, the current small molecule drugs targeting CAFs have been summarized, including both natural small molecules and targeted drugs for current clinical therapeutic applications. A complete review of the role of fibroblasts in TME from an immune perspective is presented, which has important implications in improving the efficiency of immunotherapy by targeting fibroblasts.

Cinnamaldehyde alleviates zearalenone-induced LS174T cell apoptosis, barrier dysfunction and mucin reduction through JNK/NF-κB signaling pathway

As a natural aldehyde organic compound, cinnamaldehyde (CA) is one of the main components of cinnamon essential oil with multiple bioactivities. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of CA on zearalenone (ZEA)-induced apoptosis, barrier dysfunction and mucin reduction, as well as underlying mechanisms in LS174T cells. In the present study, cells pre-treated with or without CA for 24 h were left untreated or subjected to ZEA for indicated time points Our results showed that 10 μM CA significantly prevented ZEA-induced cell viability decline, reversed ZEA-induced increase of the LDH level, cell cycle disruption and apoptosis in LS174T cells. Periodic acid-schiff (PAS) staining analysis showed that CA significantly alleviated the reduction of mucin secretion in LS174T cells caused by ZEA exposure. Western blot analysis showed that CA significantly reversed ZEA-induced reduction of the expression of mucin 2 (MUC2) and tight junction (TJ) proteins (claudin-1, claudin-3, ZO-1 and ZO-2) in LS174T cells. Notably, CA can significantly reduce the upregulation of the main effector of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways in LS174T cells. Further study showed that CA protects cells against ZEA-induced cellular damage through JNK/NF-κB signaling pathway in LS174T cells. Supplementation with CA might be an potential strategy to alleviate the damaging effect of ZEA on epithelial cells.

Re-Shaping the Pancreatic Cancer Tumor Microenvironment: A New Role for the Metastasis Suppressor NDRG1

Pancreatic cancer (PaC) is a highly aggressive disease, with poor response to current treatments and 5-year survival rates of 10-15%. PaC progression is facilitated by its interaction with the complex and multifaceted tumor microenvironment (TME). In the TME, cancer cells and surrounding stromal cells constantly communicate with each other via the secretion and uptake of factors including cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, metabolites, and extracellular vesicles (EVs), reshaping the landscape of PaC. Recent studies demonstrated that the metastasis suppressor N-myc downstream regulated 1 (NDRG1) not only inhibits oncogenic signaling pathways in PaC cells but also alters the communication between PaC cells and the surrounding stroma. In fact, NDRG1 was found to influence the secretome of PaC cells, alter cancer cell metabolism, and interfere with intracellular trafficking and intercellular communication between PaC cells and surrounding fibroblasts. This review will present recent advancements in understanding the role of NDRG1 in PaC progression, with a focus on how this molecule influences PaC-stroma communication and its potential for re-shaping the PaC TME.

The "Self-eating" of cancer-associated fibroblast: A potential target for cancer

Autophagy helps maintain energy homeostasis and protect cells from stress effects by selectively removing misfolded/polyubiquitylated proteins, lipids, and damaged mitochondria. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are cellular components of tumor microenvironment (TME). Autophagy in CAFs inhibits tumor development in the early stages; however, it has a tumor-promoting effect in advanced stages. In this review, we aimed to summarize the modulators responsible for the induction of autophagy in CAFs, such as hypoxia, nutrient deprivation, mitochondrial stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. In addition, we aimed to present autophagy-related signaling pathways in CAFs, and role of autophagy in CAF activation, tumor progression, tumor immune microenvironment. Autophagy in CAFs may be an emerging target for tumor therapy. In summary, autophagy in CAFs is regulated by a variety of modulators and can reshape tumor immune microenvironment, affecting tumor progression and treatment.

The Therapeutic Roles of Cinnamaldehyde against Cardiovascular Diseases

Evidence from epidemiological studies has demonstrated that the incidence and mortality of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) increase year by year, which pose a great threat on social economy and human health worldwide. Due to limited therapeutic benefits and associated adverse effects of current medications, there is an urgent need to uncover novel agents with favorable safety and efficacy. Cinnamaldehyde (CA) is a bioactive phytochemical isolated from the stem bark of Chinese herbal medicine Cinnamon and has been suggested to possess curative roles against the development of CVDs. This integrated review intends to summarize the physicochemical and pharmacokinetic features of CA and discuss the recent advances in underlying mechanisms and potential targets responsible for anti-CVD properties of CA. The CA-related cardiovascular protective mechanisms could be attributed to the inhibition of inflammation and oxidative stress, improvement of lipid and glucose metabolism, regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis, suppression of cardiac fibrosis, and platelet aggregation and promotion of vasodilation and angiogenesis. Furthermore, CA is likely to inhibit CVD progression via affecting other possible processes including autophagy and ER stress regulation, gut microbiota and immune homeostasis, ion metabolism, ncRNA expression, and TRPA1 activation. Collectively, experiments reported previously highlight the therapeutic effects of CA and clinical trials are advocated to offer scientific basis for the compound future applied in clinical practice for CVD prophylaxis and treatment.

Ligustilide Inhibits Tumor Angiogenesis by Downregulating VEGFA Secretion from Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Prostate Cancer via TLR4

CAFs secrete VEGFA in the tumor microenvironment to induce angiogenesis and promote tumor growth. The downregulation of VEGFA secretion from CAFs helps block angiogenesis and exerts an anti-tumor effect. In vivo experiments showed that the angiogenesis of the tumor-bearing mice in the ligustilide group was significantly reduced. The results of MTT, tube formation, Transwell and scratch experiments showed that ligustilide did not affect the proliferation of HUVECs in a certain concentration range (<60 μM), but it inhibited the proliferation, tube formation and migration of HUVECs induced by CAFs. At this concentration, ligustilide did not inhibit CAF proliferation. The qPCR and WB results revealed that ligustilide downregulated the level of VEGFA in CAFs via the TLR4-ERK/JNK/p38 signaling pathway, and the effect was attenuated by blockers of the above molecules. Ligustilide also downregulated the autocrine VEGFA of HUVECs induced by CAFs, which inhibited angiogenesis more effectively. In addition, ligustilide inhibited glycolysis and HIF-1 expression in CAFs. Overall, ligustilide downregulated the VEGFA level in CAFs via the TLR4-ERK/JNK/p38 signaling pathway and inhibited the promotion of angiogenesis. This study provides a new strategy for the anti-tumor effect of natural active molecules, namely, blockade of angiogenesis, and provides a new candidate molecule for blocking angiogenesis in the tumor microenvironment.

Cancer Associated Fibroblasts - An Impediment to Effective Anti-Cancer T Cell Immunity

The presence of functionally efficient cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) in the Tumour nest is crucial in mediating a successful immune response to cancer. The detection and elimination of cancer cells by CTL can be impaired by cancer-mediated immune evasion. In recent years, it has become increasingly clear that not only neoplastic cells themselves, but also cells of the tumour microenvironment (TME) exert immunosuppressive functions and thereby play an integral part in the immune escape of cancer. The most abundant stromal cells of the TME, cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs), promote tumour progression via multiple pathways and play a role in dampening the immune response to cancer. Recent research indicates that T cells react to CAF signalling and establish bidirectional crosstalk that plays a significant role in the tumour immune response. This review discusses the various mechanisms by which the CAF/T cell crosstalk may impede anti-cancer immunity.

Hyperthermia Treatment as a Promising Anti-Cancer Strategy: Therapeutic Targets, Perspective Mechanisms and Synergistic Combinations in Experimental Approaches

Despite recent developments in diagnosis and treatment options, cancer remains one of the most critical threats to health. Several anti-cancer therapies have been identified, but further research is needed to provide more treatment options that are safe and effective for cancer. Hyperthermia (HT) is a promising treatment strategy for cancer because of its safety and cost-effectiveness. This review summarizes studies on the anti-cancer effects of HT and the detailed mechanisms. In addition, combination therapies with anti-cancer drugs or natural products that can effectively overcome the limitations of HT are reviewed because HT may trigger protective events, such as an increase of heat shock proteins (HSPs). In the 115 reports included, the mechanisms related to apoptosis, cell cycle, reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial membrane potential, DNA damage, transcription factors and HSPs were considered important. This review shows that HT is an effective inducer of apoptosis. Moreover, the limitations of HT may be overcome using combined therapy with anti-cancer drugs or natural products. Therefore, appropriate combinations of such agents with HT will exert maximal effects to treat cancer.