Extended-release carbamazepine capsules as monotherapy in bipolar disorder : pooled results from two randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials

Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) and International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) recommendations for the management of patients with bipolar disorder with mixed presentations

OBJECTIVES

The 2018 Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) and International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) guidelines provided clinicians with pragmatic treatment recommendations for bipolar disorder (BD). While these guidelines included commentary on how mixed features may direct treatment selection, specific recommendations were not provided-a critical gap which the current update aims to address.

METHOD

Overview of research regarding mixed presentations in BD, with treatment recommendations developed using a modified CANMAT/ISBD rating methodology. Limitations are discussed, including the dearth of high-quality data and reliance on expert opinion.

RESULTS

No agents met threshold for first-line treatment of DSM-5 manic or depressive episodes with mixed features. For mania + mixed features second-line treatment options include asenapine, cariprazine, divalproex, and aripiprazole. In depression + mixed features, cariprazine and lurasidone are recommended as second-line options. For DSM-IV defined mixed episodes, with a longer history of research, asenapine and aripiprazole are first-line, and olanzapine (monotherapy or combination), carbamazepine, and divalproex are second-line. Research on maintenance treatments following a DSM-5 mixed presentation is extremely limited, with third-line recommendations based on expert opinion. For maintenance treatment following a DSM-IV mixed episode, quetiapine (monotherapy or combination) is first-line, and lithium and olanzapine identified as second-line options.

CONCLUSION

The CANMAT and ISBD groups hope these guidelines provide valuable support for clinicians providing care to patients experiencing mixed presentations, as well as further influence investment in research to improve diagnosis and treatment of this common and complex clinical state.

Efficacy of Carbamazepine and Its Derivatives in the Treatment of Bipolar Disorder

Background and Objectives: This review is dedicated to the use of carbamazepine and its derivatives oxcarbazepine and eslicarbazepine in bipolar disorder and their relative strengths in treating and preventing new depressive or manic episodes. This paper will discuss the evidence of their efficacy relative to the polarity of relapse from controlled acute and maintenance/relapse prevention studies in bipolar patients. Materials and Methods: A Medline search was conducted for controlled acute and maintenance studies with carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, and eslicarbazepine in bipolar disorder. In addition, abstracts reporting on controlled studies with these medications from key conferences were taken into consideration. Results: Information was extracted from 84 articles on the acute and prophylactic efficacy of the medications under consideration. They all appear to have stronger efficacy in treating acute mania than depression, which also translates to better protection against manic than depressive relapses for carbamazepine. Still, there is a paucity of controlled acute studies on bipolar depression for all and, with the exception of carbamazepine, a lack of long-term monotherapy maintenance data. For eslicarbazepine, the efficacy in bipolar disorder remains largely unknown. Especially with carbamazepine, tolerability issues and drug-drug interactions need to be kept in mind. Conclusions: Two of the medications discussed in this review, carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine, match Class A criteria according to the criteria proposed by Ketter and Calabrese, meaning acute antimanic efficacy, prevention of manic relapses, and not causing or worsening depression.

Pharmacogenetics of Carbamazepine and Valproate: Focus on Polymorphisms of Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters

Pharmacogenomics can identify polymorphisms in genes involved in drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics determining differences in efficacy and safety and causing inter-individual variability in drug response. Therefore, pharmacogenomics can help clinicians in optimizing therapy based on patient's genotype, also in psychiatric and neurological settings. However, pharmacogenetic screenings for psychotropic drugs are not routinely employed in diagnosis and monitoring of patients treated with mood stabilizers, such as carbamazepine and valproate, because their benefit in clinical practice is still controversial. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on pharmacogenetic biomarkers of these anticonvulsant drugs.

Pharmacologic Treatment of Mixed States

Despite the relatively high prevalence of mixed symptoms and features among patients with mood disorders, the current literature supporting the specific efficacy of second-generation antipsychotics and mood stabilizers for the treatment of mixed symptoms is limited. Several studies have demonstrated that acute affective episodes with mixed symptoms or features tend to respond unsatisfactory to treatments that are usually more effective for the management of other affective phases. There is clearly a need for clinical trials in order to determine the more adequate pharmacologic option for the treatment of individuals suffering from affective episodes with mixed features.

Korean Medication Algorithm Project for Bipolar Disorder 2018 (KMAP-BP 2018): Fourth Revision

Objective

The Korean Medication Algorithm Project for Bipolar Disorder (KMAP-BP) was first published in 2002 through an expert consensus of opinion, and updated in 2006, 2010, and 2014. This study constitutes the fourth revision of the KMAP-BP.

Methods

A 50-item questionnaire was used to obtain the consensus of experts regarding pharmacological treatment strategies for various phases of adult bipolar disorder and six items for pediatric bipolar disorder. The review committee included 84 Korean psychiatrists and 43 child and adolescent psychiatry experts.

Results

The preferred first-step strategies for acute mania were the combination of a mood stabilizer (MS) and an atypical antipsychotic (AAP), MS monotherapy, and AAP monotherapy. A combination of a MS and an AAP, and AAP monotherapy were preferred for psychotic mania. The first-step strategies for mild to moderate bipolar depression were monotherapy with MS, AAP, or lamotrigine (LMT), and the combination of a MS and an AAP or LMT, or a combination of an AAP and LMT. The combination of two among a MS, AAP, and LMT were preferred for non-psychotic severe depression. A combination of a MS and an AAP or the combination of an AAP with an antidepressant or LMT were the first-line options for psychotic severe depression.

Conclusion

The recommendations of the KMAP-BP 2018 have changed from the previous version by reflecting recent developments in pharmacotherapy for bipolar disorder. KMAP-BP 2018 provides clinicians with a wealth of information regarding appropriate strategies for treating patients with bipolar disorder.

Mixed states in bipolar and major depressive disorders: systematic review and quality appraisal of guidelines

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review provided a critical synthesis and a comprehensive overview of guidelines on the treatment of mixed states.

METHOD

The MEDLINE/PubMed and EMBASE databases were systematically searched from inception to March 21st, 2018. International guidelines covering the treatment of mixed episodes, manic/hypomanic, or depressive episodes with mixed features were considered for inclusion. A methodological quality assessment was conducted with the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation-AGREE II.

RESULTS

The final selection yielded six articles. Despite their heterogeneity, all guidelines agreed in interrupting an antidepressant monotherapy or adding mood-stabilizing medications. Olanzapine seemed to have the best evidence for acute mixed hypo/manic/depressive states and maintenance treatment. Aripiprazole and paliperidone were possible alternatives for acute hypo/manic mixed states. Lurasidone and ziprasidone were useful in acute mixed depression. Valproate was recommended for the prevention of new mixed episodes while lithium and quetiapine in preventing affective episodes of all polarities. Clozapine and electroconvulsive therapy were effective in refractory mixed episodes. The AGREE II overall assessment rate ranged between 42% and 92%, indicating different quality level of included guidelines.

CONCLUSION

The unmet needs for the mixed symptoms treatment were associated with diagnostic issues and limitations of previous research, particularly for maintenance treatment.

Rethinking the spectrum of mood disorders: implications for diagnosis and management - Proceedings of a symposium presented at the 30th Annual European College of Neuropsychopharmacology Congress, 4 September 2017, Paris, France

The simultaneous occurrence of manic and depressive features has been recognized since classical times, but the term 'mixed state' was first used by Kraepelin at the end of the 19th century. From the 1980s, until the advent of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5), psychiatric disorders were classified using a categorical approach. However, it was recognized that such an approach was too rigid to encompass the range of symptomatology encountered in clinical practice. Therefore, a dimensional approach was adopted in DSM-5, in which affective states are considered to be distributed across a continuum ranging from pure mania to pure depression. In addition, the copresence of symptoms of the opposite pole are captured using a 'with mixed features' specifier, applied when three or more nonoverlapping subthreshold symptoms of the opposite pole are present. Mixed features are common in patients with mood episodes, complicating the course of illness, reducing treatment response and worsening outcomes. However, research in this area is scarce and treatment options are limited. Current evidence indicates that antidepressants should be avoided for the treatment of bipolar mixed states. Evidence for bipolar mixed states supports the use of several second-generation antipsychotics, valproate and electroconvulsive therapy. One randomized controlled trial has demonstrated the efficacy of lurasidone, compared with placebo, in patients with major depressive disorder with mixed features, and there is limited evidence supporting the use of ziprasidone in such patients. Further research is required to determine whether other antipsychotic agents, or additional therapeutic approaches, might also be effective in this setting.

The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Guidelines for the Biological Treatment of Bipolar Disorders: Acute and long-term treatment of mixed states in bipolar disorder

OBJECTIVES

Although clinically highly relevant, the recognition and treatment of bipolar mixed states has played only an underpart in recent guidelines. This WFSBP guideline has been developed to supply a systematic overview of all scientific evidence pertaining to the acute and long-term treatment of bipolar mixed states in adults.

METHODS

Material used for these guidelines is based on a systematic literature search using various data bases. Their scientific rigour was categorised into six levels of evidence (A-F), and different grades of recommendation to ensure practicability were assigned. We examined data pertaining to the acute treatment of manic and depressive symptoms in bipolar mixed patients, as well as data pertaining to the prevention of mixed recurrences after an index episode of any type, or recurrence of any type after a mixed index episode.

RESULTS

Manic symptoms in bipolar mixed states appeared responsive to treatment with several atypical antipsychotics, the best evidence resting with olanzapine. For depressive symptoms, addition of ziprasidone to treatment as usual may be beneficial; however, the evidence base is much more limited than for the treatment of manic symptoms. Besides olanzapine and quetiapine, valproate and lithium should also be considered for recurrence prevention.

LIMITATIONS

The concept of mixed states changed over time, and recently became much more comprehensive with the release of DSM-5. As a consequence, studies in bipolar mixed patients targeted slightly different bipolar subpopulations. In addition, trial designs in acute and maintenance treatment also advanced in recent years in response to regulatory demands.

CONCLUSIONS

Current treatment recommendations are still based on limited evidence, and there is a clear demand for confirmative studies adopting the DSM-5 specifier with mixed features concept.

Treating mixed mania/hypomania: a review and synthesis of the evidence

The DSM-5 incorporates a broad concept of mixed states and captured ≥3 nonoverlapping symptoms of the opposite polarity using a "with mixed features" specifier to be applied to manic/hypomanic and major depressive episodes. Pharmacotherapy of mixed states is challenging because of the necessity to treat both manic/hypomanic and depressive symptoms concurrently. High-potency antipsychotics used to treat manic symptoms and antidepressants can potentially deteriorate symptoms of the opposite polarity. This review aimed to provide a synthesis of the current evidence for pharmacotherapy of mixed states with an emphasis on mixed mania/hypomania. A PubMed search was conducted for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that were at least moderately sized, included a placebo arm, and contained information on acute-phase and maintenance treatments of adult patients with mixed episodes or mania/hypomania with significant depressive symptoms. Most studies were post-hoc subgroup and pooled analyses of the data from RCTs for acute manic and mixed episodes of bipolar I disorder; only two prospectively examined efficacy for mixed mania/hypomania specifically. Aripiprazole, asenapine, carbamazepine, olanzapine, and ziprasidone showed the strongest evidence of efficacy in acute-phase treatment. Quetiapine and divalproex/valproate were also efficacious. Combination therapies with these atypical antipsychotics and mood stabilizers can be considered in severe cases. Olanzapine and quetiapine (alone or in combination with lithium/divalproex) showed the strongest evidence of efficacy in maintenance treatment. Lithium and lamotrigine may be beneficial given their preventive effects on suicide and depressive relapse. Further prospective studies primarily focusing on mixed states are needed.

Pharmacological treatment of mixed states

Mixed states in bipolar disorder have been neglected, and the data concerning treatment of these conditions have been relatively obscure. To address this, we systematically reviewed published pharmacological treatment data for "mixed states/episodes" in mood disorders, including "with mixed features" in DSM-5. We searched PubMed, MEDLINE, The Cochrane Library, clinicaltrials.gov, and controlled-trials.com (with different combinations of the following keywords: "mixed states/features," "bipolar," "depressive symptoms/bipolar depression," "manic symptoms," "treatment," "DSM-5") through to October 2016. We applied a quality-of-evidence approach: first-degree evidence=randomized placebo-controlled studies of pharmacological interventions used as monotherapy; second-degree evidence=a similar design in the absence of a placebo or of a combination therapy as a comparative group; third-degree evidence=case reports, case series, and reviews of published studies. We found very few primary double-blind, placebo-controlled studies on the treatment of mixed states: the preponderance of available data derives from subgroup analysis performed on studies that originally involved manic patients. Future research should study the effects of treatments in mixed states defined using current criteria.

The International College of Neuro-Psychopharmacology (CINP) Treatment Guidelines for Bipolar Disorder in Adults (CINP-BD-2017), Part 2: Review, Grading of the Evidence, and a Precise Algorithm

BACKGROUND

The current paper includes a systematic search of the literature, a detailed presentation of the results, and a grading of treatment options in terms of efficacy and tolerability/safety.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The PRISMA method was used in the literature search with the combination of the words 'bipolar,' 'manic,' 'mania,' 'manic depression,' and 'manic depressive' with 'randomized,' and 'algorithms' with 'mania,' 'manic,' 'bipolar,' 'manic-depressive,' or 'manic depression.' Relevant web pages and review articles were also reviewed.

RESULTS

The current report is based on the analysis of 57 guideline papers and 531 published papers related to RCTs, reviews, posthoc, or meta-analysis papers to March 25, 2016. The specific treatment options for acute mania, mixed episodes, acute bipolar depression, maintenance phase, psychotic and mixed features, anxiety, and rapid cycling were evaluated with regards to efficacy. Existing treatment guidelines were also reviewed. Finally, Tables reflecting efficacy and recommendation levels were created that led to the development of a precise algorithm that still has to prove its feasibility in everyday clinical practice.

CONCLUSIONS

A systematic literature search was conducted on the pharmacological treatment of bipolar disorder to identify all relevant random controlled trials pertaining to all aspects of bipolar disorder and graded the data according to a predetermined method to develop a precise treatment algorithm for management of various phases of bipolar disorder. It is important to note that the some of the recommendations in the treatment algorithm were based on the secondary outcome data from posthoc analyses.

Mixed States in Bipolar Disorder: Etiology, Pathogenesis and Treatment

Many bipolar disorder patients exhibit mixed affective states, which portend a generally more severe illness course and treatment resistance. In the previous renditions of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual mixed states were narrowly defined in the context of bipolar I disorder, but with the advent of DSM-5 the term “mixed episode” was dropped and replaced by “mixed features” specifier which could be broadly applied to manic, hypomanic and depressive episodes in both the bipolar spectrum and major depressive disorders. This paradigm shift reflected their significance in the prognosis and overall management of mood disorders, so that the clinicians should thoroughly familiarize themselves with the contemporary notions surrounding these conditions. The purpose of this manuscript is to bring to light the current conceptualizations regarding the etiology, pathogenesis and treatment of mixed states. To achieve this goal, in June 2016 an extensive literature search was undertaken using the PubMed database. Some exploratory terms utilized included “mixed states”, “mixed episodes”, “switching”, “rapid cycling” cross referenced with “bipolar disorder”. Focusing on the most relevant and up to date studies, it was revealed that mixed states result from genetic susceptibility in the circadian and dopamine neurotransmission apparatuses and disturbance in the intricate catecholamine-acetylcholine neurotransmission balance which leads to mood fluctuations. The management of mixed states is challenging with atypical antipsychotics, newer anticonvulsants and electroconvulsive therapy emerging as the foremost treatment options. In conclusion, while progress has been made in the neurobiological understanding of mixed states, the currently available therapeutic modalities have only shown limited effectiveness.

Diagnosis, Epidemiology and Management of Mixed States in Bipolar Disorder

Approximately 40% of patients with bipolar disorder experience mixed episodes, defined as a manic state with depressive features, or manic symptoms in a patient with bipolar depression. Compared with bipolar patients without mixed features, patients with bipolar mixed states generally have more severe symptomatology, more lifetime episodes of illness, worse clinical outcomes and higher rates of comorbidities, and thus present a significant clinical challenge. Most clinical trials have investigated second-generation neuroleptic monotherapy, monotherapy with anticonvulsants or lithium, combination therapy, and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Neuroleptic drugs are often used alone or in combination with anticonvulsants or lithium for preventive treatment, and ECT is an effective treatment for mixed manic episodes in situations where medication fails or cannot be used. Common antidepressants have been shown to worsen mania symptoms during mixed episodes without necessarily improving depressive symptoms; thus, they are not recommended during mixed episodes. A greater understanding of pathophysiological processes in bipolar disorder is now required to provide a more accurate diagnosis and new personalised treatment approaches. Targeted, specific treatments developed through a greater understanding of bipolar disorder pathophysiology, capable of affecting the underlying disease processes, could well prove to be more effective, faster acting, and better tolerated than existing therapies, therefore providing better outcomes for individuals affected by bipolar disorder. Until such time as targeted agents are available, second-generation neuroleptics are emerging as the treatment of choice in the management of mixed states in bipolar disorder.

Bipolar disorder and gambling disorder comorbidity: current evidence and implications for pharmacological treatment

BACKGROUND

The co-occurrence of bipolar disorder (BD) and gambling disorder (GD), though of clinical and public health importance, is still scarcely investigated. Comorbid BD-GD subjects experience a more severe course of illness and poorer treatment outcome, due to a range of clinical and psychosocial factors that collectively impede remission and recovery. The aim of our paper is to review the role of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of comorbid BD-GD, in order to support clinical decisions according to the best available evidence.

METHODS

A qualitative systematic review of studies on pharmacological treatment in comorbid BD-GD was performed. A comprehensive literature search of online databases, bibliographies of published articles and gray literature was conducted. Data on efficacy, safety and tolerability were extracted and levels of evidence were assessed. We also provide a brief overview of current epidemiological, neurobiological and clinical findings, with the intention of proposing a dimensional approach to the choice of available drugs.

RESULTS

The only drug with a high level of evidence is lithium. Considering the inclusion of GD in DSM-5 'Substance-related and Addictive Disorders' category, we discuss the use of other drugs with a high level of evidence currently used in BD subjects with co-occurring substance use disorders.

LIMITATIONS

Only few clinical trials are available and the population is limited; therefore no conclusive evidence can be inferred.

CONCLUSIONS

Further randomized controlled trials are required to evaluate the efficacy of pharmacological treatment strategies in large samples of patients with comorbid BD-GD. Also, attempts should be made to identify other shared clinical and psychopathological domains that are amenable to treatment.

Clinical decision making in the treatment of mixed states

OBJECTIVES

We reviewed the treatment of bipolar mixed states using efficacy data of licensed and non-licensed physical or pharmacological treatments.

METHODS

We conducted a literature search to identify published studies reporting data on mixed states. Grading was done using an in-house level of evidence and we compared the efficacy with treatment recommendations of mixed states in current bipolar disorder guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of 133 studies reported data on mixed states, and seven guidelines differentiate the acute treatment of mixed states from pure states. The strongest evidence in treating co-occurring manic and depressive symptoms was for monotherapy with aripiprazole, asenapine, extended release carbamazepine, valproate, olanzapine, and ziprasidone. Aripiprazole was recommended in three guidelines, asenapine in one, and carbamazepine and ziprasidone in two. As adjunctive treatment, the strongest evidence of efficacy was for olanzapine plus lithium or valproate. For maintenance, there is evidence for the efficacy of monotherapy with valproate, olanzapine, and quetiapine. In the six guidelines valproate or olanzapine are first line monotherapy options; one recommends quetiapine. Recommended add-on treatments are lithium or valproate plus quetiapine.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a lack of studies designed to address the efficacy of medications in mixed affective symptoms. Guidelines do not fully reflect the current evidences.

[Bipolar disorder: inter-episode symptoms]

The importance of inter-episode symptoms in bipolar disorder can be traced back to the middle of the 19th century, at a time when the two fathers of the concept in France, Falret and Baillarger were opposed on the issue as to whether the presence of free intervals between the episodes had to be part or not of the disease's definition. Modern studies have reported rates between 50 and 68% for those symptoms which refer to subsyndromal manifestations present between affective episodes but that do not meet the required criteria for episodes definition. These manifestations comprise residual symptoms, prodromes, axis I comorbid psychiatric disorders, side effects of treatment, temperamental features, and comorbidity with personality disorders. Inter- episodes symptoms represent a risk factor for the occurrence of relapses and recurrences and are usually associated with impairments in functioning in almost all domains of psychosocial and family life. As they are easy to miss, it is important in clinical practice, to draw the attention of clinicians, patients and relatives to the role they have in the course of the illness. As far as their management, it may be crucial to achieve a full remission of the episodes, using adequate dosages of psychotropic drugs. Residual symptoms, prodromes as well as other inter-episode symptoms may respond to strategies based on cognitive-behaviour therapy, and/or psychoeducation.

[Mixed states]

The issue of mixed states has an important place in the debate on psychiatric nosography since the end of 19th century. The current definition of mixed states according to the DSM- IV, as a thymic episode of bipolar disorder type I, is probably somewhat too restrictive in clinical practice. Due to the clinical heterogeneity of bipolar disorder, the mixed states will define within a dimensional approach, likely in the next DSM- V. As the evolution, the prognosis or the therapeutic strategies differ from what is applied in other thymic episodes, this transition from "mixed state" to manic or depressive episodes "with mixed features" may be relevant in practice.

The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the biological treatment of bipolar disorders: update 2012 on the long-term treatment of bipolar disorder

OBJECTIVES

These guidelines are based on a first edition that was published in 2004, and have been edited and updated with the available scientific evidence up to October 2012. Their purpose is to supply a systematic overview of all scientific evidence pertaining to the long-term treatment of bipolar disorder in adults.

METHODS

Material used for these guidelines are based on a systematic literature search using various data bases. Their scientific rigor was categorised into six levels of evidence (A-F) and different grades of recommendation to ensure practicability were assigned.

RESULTS

Maintenance trial designs are complex and changed fundamentally over time; thus, it is not possible to give an overall recommendation for long-term treatment. Different scenarios have to be examined separately: Prevention of mania, depression, or an episode of any polarity, both in acute responders and in patients treated de novo. Treatment might differ in Bipolar II patients or Rapid cyclers, as well as in special subpopulations. We identified several medications preventive against new manic episodes, whereas the current state of research into the prevention of new depressive episodes is less satisfactory. Lithium continues to be the substance with the broadest base of evidence across treatment scenarios.

CONCLUSIONS

Although major advances have been made since the first edition of this guideline in 2004, there are still areas of uncertainty, especially the prevention of depressive episodes and optimal long-term treatment of Bipolar II patients.

New approaches for the management of bipolar disorder: role of sublingual asenapine in the treatment of mania

Bipolar disorder is a prevalent disorder that tends to become progressive without treatment and with inadequate treatment. Second generation (atypical) antipsychotic drugs have increasingly been used as adjunctive treatment or monotherapy for mania, but they have the potential for significant adverse effects and their role in maintenance treatment remains unclear. Asenapine is a new atypical antipsychotic medication formulated in a sublingual preparation that has been studied for mania but not maintenance therapy. Evidence indicating efficacy, adverse effects, and potential benefits and drawbacks of using asenapine in the treatment of bipolar disorder based on currently available published data are summarized.

Treatment of mixed bipolar states

Mixed bipolar states are associated with more severe symptoms and outcome. Our aim is to review the literature examining their treatment. We conducted a literature search of randomized clinical studies and post-hoc analyses on mixed bipolar states' treatment. Remarkably, there is only one double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, recruiting a mixed episode cohort, and one post-hoc analysis of this trial, while most data come from post-hoc analyses of trials including both manic and mixed patients. Improvement of manic symptoms in mixed episodes is similar to that seen in pure manic episodes and independent of baseline depressive features. The magnitude of response to manic symptoms' treatment probably exceeds that of depressive symptoms, which appear to resolve later. Valproate and carbamazepine are effective in acute mixed episodes, but the efficacy of lithium appears questionable. Atypical antipsychotic monotherapy improves both manic and depressive symptoms. Mood-stabilizer-atypical antipsychotic combination increases this effect. Atypical antipsychotic-antidepressant combination against acute mixed depression does not increase the risk for mania, although its superior efficacy vs. atypical antipsychotic monotherapy cannot be supported by current data. As regards prophylaxis, atypical antipsychotic monotherapy is associated with a lower incidence of and a longer time to relapse of any kind. The augmentation of lithium or divalproex with atypical antipsychotics increases prophylactic efficacy. Lithium or divalproex monotherapy have not been associated with significant prophylactic benefits following mixed mania. New, randomized prospective trials involving homogeneous cohorts of mixed bipolar patients are needed in order to delineate the appropriate pharmacological treatment of mixed states.

Efficacy of pharmacotherapy in bipolar disorder: a report by the WPA section on pharmacopsychiatry

The current statement is a systematic review of the available data concerning the efficacy of medication treatment of bipolar disorder (BP). A systematic MEDLINE search was made concerning the treatment of BP (RCTs) with the names of treatment options as keywords. The search was updated on 10 March 2012. The literature suggests that lithium, first and second generation antipsychotics and valproate and carbamazepine are efficacious in the treatment of acute mania. Quetiapine and the olanzapine-fluoxetine combination are also efficacious for treating bipolar depression. Antidepressants should only be used in combination with an antimanic agent, because they can induce switching to mania/hypomania/mixed states/rapid cycling when utilized as monotherapy. Lithium, olanzapine, quetiapine and aripiprazole are efficacious during the maintenance phase. Lamotrigine is efficacious in the prevention of depression, and it remains to be clarified whether it is also efficacious for mania. There is some evidence on the efficacy of psychosocial interventions as an adjunctive treatment to medication. Electroconvulsive therapy is an option for refractory patients. In acute manic patients who are partial responders to lithium/valproate/carbamazepine, adding an antipsychotic is a reasonable choice. The combination with best data in acute bipolar depression is lithium plus lamotrigine. Patients stabilized on combination treatment might do worse if shifted to monotherapy during maintenance, and patients could benefit with add-on treatment with olanzapine, valproate, an antidepressant, or lamotrigine, depending on the index acute phase. A variety of treatment options for BP are available today, but still unmet needs are huge. Combination therapy may improve the treatment outcome but it also carries more side-effect burden. Further research is necessary as well as the development of better guidelines and algorithms for the step-by-step rational treatment.

Balanced efficacy, safety, and tolerability recommendations for the clinical management of bipolar disorder

OBJECTIVE

To provide practical and clinically meaningful treatment recommendations that amalgamate clinical experience and research findings for each phase of bipolar disorder.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of the literature was undertaken using electronic database search engines (Medline, PubMed, Cochrane reviews) using key words (e.g., bipolar depression, mania, treatment). All relevant randomised controlled trials were examined, along with review papers, meta-analyses, and book chapters known to the authors. In addition, the recommendations from accompanying papers in this supplement have been distilled and captured in the form of summary boxes. The findings, in conjunction with the clinical experience of international researchers and clinicians who are practiced in treating mood disorders, formed the basis of the treatment recommendations within this paper.

RESULTS

Balancing clinical experience with evidence informed and lead to the development of practical clinical recommendations that emphasise the importance of safety and tolerability alongside efficacy in the clinical management of bipolar disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

The current paper summarises the treatment recommendations relating to each phase of bipolar disorder while providing additional, evidence-based, practical insights. Medication-related side effects and monitoring strategies highlight the importance of safety and tolerability considerations, which, along with efficacy information, should be given equal merit.

Oxcarbazepine for acute affective episodes in bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Oxcarbazepine, a keto derivative of the 'mood stabiliser' carbamazepine, may have efficacy in the treatment of acute episodes of bipolar disorder. Potentially, it may offer pharmacokinetic advantages over carbamazepine.

OBJECTIVES

To review the efficacy and acceptability of oxcarbazepine compared to placebo and other agents in the treatment of acute bipolar episodes including mania, mixed episodes and depression.

SEARCH METHODS

Electronic databases were searched up to 2 September 2011. Specialist journals and conference proceedings were handsearched. Authors, experts in the field and pharmaceutical companies were contacted requesting information on published and unpublished trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) which compared oxcarbazepine with placebo or alternative agents, where the stated intent of intervention was the acute treatment of bipolar affective disorder were sought. Participants with bipolar disorder of either sex and of all ages were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data were extracted from the original reports individually by two review authors. For dichotomous data, odds ratios (ORs) were calculated with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Continuous data were analysed using standardised mean differences (with 95% CI).

MAIN RESULTS

Seven studies were included in the analysis (368 participants in total). All were on mania, hypomania, mixed episodes or rapid-cycling disorder. Overall, their methodological quality was relatively low.There was no difference in the primary outcome analysis - a fall of  50% or more on the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) - between oxcarbazepine and placebo (N=1, n=110, OR =2.10, 95% CI 0.94 to 4.73) in one study, conducted in children; no studies were available in adult participants.In comparison with other mood stabilisers, there was no difference between oxcarbazepine and valproate as an antimanic agent using the primary outcome (50% or more fall in YMRS, OR=0.44, 95% CI 0.10 to 1.97, 1 study, n=60, P=0.273) or the secondary outcome measure (differences in YMRS between the two groups, SMD=0.18, 95% CI -0.24 to 0.59, 2 studies, n=90, P=0.40). No primary or secondary efficacy outcome measures were found comparing oxcarbazepine with lithium monotherapy.As an adjunctive treatment to lithium, oxcarbazepine reduced depression rating scale scores more than carbamazepine in a group of manic participants on the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) (SMD=- 1.12, 95% CI -1.71 to -0.53, 1 study, n=52, P=0.0002) and on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) (SMD=- 0.77, 95% CI -1.35 to -0.20, 1 study, n=52, P=0.008).There was a higher incidence of adverse effects, particularly neuropsychiatric, in participants randomised to oxcarbazepine compared to those on placebo (1 study, n=115, 17% to 39% of participants on oxcarbazepine had at least one such event compared to 7% to 10% on placebo).There was no difference in adverse events rates between oxcarbazepine and other mood stabilisers or haloperidol.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Currently, there are insufficient trials of adequate methodological quality on oxcarbazepine in the acute treatment of bipolar disorder to inform us on its efficacy and acceptability. Studies predominantly examine the treatment of mania: there are data from subgroup analysis on mixed affective, hypomania and rapid-cycling states.From the few studies included in this review, oxcarbazepine did not differ in efficacy compared to placebo in children and adolescents. It did not differ from other active agents in adults. It may have a poorer tolerability profile compared to placebo. No data were found on outcomes relevant to patients and clinicians, such as length of hospital admission.  There is a need for adequately powered randomised controlled trials of good methodological quality to inform us of the therapeutic potential of oxcarbazepine across the spectrum of acute episodes in bipolar disorder.

Current and emerging therapies for the management of bipolar disorders

Bipolar disorder is a complex condition to treat because agents that may be effective for a specific phase may not be effective for other phases, or may even worsen the overall course of the illness. Over the last decade there has been an increase in research activity in the treatment of bipolar illness. There are now several agents that are well established for the treatment of acute mania (lithium, divalproex, carbamazepine, nearly all antipsychotics), acute bipolar depression (lamotrigine, quetiapine, olanzapine/fluoxetine combination), and relapse prevention (lithium, lamotrigine, divalproex, most second generation antipsychotics). There are also novel treatments that are being studied for all three phases. These include eslicarbazepine, cariprazine, MEM-1003, memantine, tamoxifen and pentazocine for acute mania; pramipexole, modafinil, armodafinil, divalproex, lurasidone, agomelatine, cariprazine, lisedexamfetamine, riluzole, RG-2417, bifeprunox, ropinirole, GSK1014802, and magnetic stimulation for bipolar depression; and asenapine, lurasidone, and cariprazine for relapse prevention. Additionally, there are accumulating data that antidepressants, particularly serotoninergic ones, are not particularly effective in acute bipolar depression and may worsen the course of the illness.

Gender-specific lipid profiles in patients with bipolar disorder

OBJECTIVE

High rates of dyslipidemia and insulin resistance (IR) are reported in patients with bipolar disorder (BD). We assessed gender effects upon rates of dyslipidemia/IR in outpatients with BD.

METHODS

Data from 491 outpatients (ages 18-88) seen in the Stanford Bipolar Disorders clinic between 2000 and 2007 were evaluated. Patients were followed longitudinally and received naturalistic treatment. BD patients (n = 234; 61% female; 42% Type I, 47% Type II, 11% NOS) with a mean age of 40.3 ± 14.0 years, mean BMI 26.8 ± 6.4, and 81% Caucasian, who had one of four lipid measures (total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, TG) at clinicians' discretion, a psychiatry clinic visit within 2 months of laboratory, and were not medicated for dyslipidemia were included. IR was imputed from TG/HDL ratio.

RESULTS

Women, compared with men, had significantly lower mean triglycerides (105.58 ± 64.12 vs. 137.99 ± 105.14, p = 0.009), higher mean HDL cholesterol (60.17 ± 17.56 vs. 46.07 ± 11.91 mg/dl, p < 0.001), lower mean LDL cholesterol (109.84 ± 33.47 vs. 123.79 ± 35.96 mg/dl, p = 0.004), and lower TG/HDL ratio (1.98 ± 1.73 vs. 3.59 ± 3.14 p < 0.001). Compared to men, women had a significantly lower prevalence of abnormal total cholesterol, LDL, TG, HDL, and TG/HDL ratio. No significant differences were found between men and women with regard to age, BMI, ethnicity, educational attainment, smoking habits, bipolar illness type, illness severity or duration, or weight-liable medication exposure.

DISCUSSION

In outpatients with BD, women had more favorable lipid profiles than men despite similar demographic variables. This sample of primarily Caucasian and educated patients, receiving vigilant clinical monitoring, may represent a relatively healthy psychiatric population demonstrating gender differences similar to those in the general population.

Class effect of pharmacotherapy in bipolar disorder: fact or misbelief?

BACKGROUND

Anecdotal reports suggests that most clinicians treat medications as belonging to a class with regard to all therapeutic indications; this means that the whole 'class' of drugs is considered to possesses a specific therapeutic action. The present article explores the possible existence of a true 'class effect' for agents available for the treatment of bipolar disorder.

METHODS

We reviewed the available treatment data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and explored 16 'agent class'/'treatment issue' cases for bipolar disorder. Four classes of agents were examined: first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs), second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs), antiepileptics and antidepressants, with respect to their efficacy on four treatment issues of bipolar disorder (BD) (acute mania, acute bipolar depression, maintenance against mania, maintenance against depression).

RESULTS

From the 16 'agent class'/' treatment issue' cases, only 3 possible class effects were detected, and they all concerned acute mania and antipsychotics. Four effect cases have not been adequately studied (FGAs against acute bipolar depression and in maintenance protection from depression, and antidepressants against acute mania and protection from mania) and they all concern treatment cases with a high risk of switching to the opposite pole, thus research in these areas is poor. There is no 'class effect' at all concerning antiepileptics.

CONCLUSIONS

The available data suggest that a 'class effect' is the exception rather than the rule in the treatment of BD. However, the possible presence of a 'class effect' concept discourages clinicians from continued scientific training and reading. Focused educational intervention might be necessary to change this attitude.

Management of bipolar depression

Patients with bipolar disorder spend more time in a depressed than manic state, even with individualized treatment. To date, bipolar depression is often misdiagnosed and ineffectively managed both for acute episodes and residual symptoms. This review attempts to summarize the current status of available treatment strategies in the treatment of bipolar depression. For acute and prophylactic treatment, a substantial body of evidence supports the antidepressive efficacy of lithium for bipolar disorders and its antisuicidal effects. Among numerous anticonvulsants with mood-stabilizing properties, valproate and lamotrigine could be first-line options for bipolar depression. Due to receptor profile, mood-stabilizing properties of second-generation antipsychotics have been explored, and up to date, quetiapine and olanzapine appear to be a reasonable option for bipolar depression. The usefulness of antidepressants in bipolar depression is still controversial. Current guidelines generally recommend the cautious antidepressant use in combination with mood stabilizers to reduce the risk of mood elevation or cycle acceleration. Results from clinical trials on psychosocial intervention are promising, especially when integrated with pharmacotherapy. Most patients with bipolar depression need individualized and combined treatment, although the published evidence on this type of treatment strategy is limited. Future studies on the utility of currently available agents and modalities including psychosocial intervention are required.

A prospective open-label trial of lamotrigine monotherapy in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder

AIM

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of lamotrigine monotherapy as an acute treatment of bipolar mood elevation in children with bipolar spectrum disorders.

METHOD

This was a 12-week, open-label, prospective trial of lamotrigine monotherapy to assess the effectiveness and tolerability of this compound in treating pediatric bipolar disorder. Assessments included the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS), Clinical Global Impressions-Improvement scale (CGI-I), Children's Depression Rating Scale (CDRS), and Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS). Adverse events were assessed through spontaneous self-reports, vital signs weight monitoring, and laboratory analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-nine children with bipolar disorder (YMRS at entry: 31.6 +/- 5.5) were enrolled in the study and 22 (56%) completed the 12-week trial. Lamotrigine was slowly titrated to an average endpoint dose of 160.7 +/- 128.3 in subjects <12 years of age (N = 22) and 219.1 +/- 172.2 mg/day in children 12-17 years of age (N = 17). Treatment with lamotrigine was associated with statistically significant levels of improvement in mean YMRS scores (-14.9 +/- 9.7, P < 0.001) at endpoint. Lamotrigine treatment also resulted in significant improvement in the severity of depressive, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and psychotic symptoms. Lamotrigine was generally well tolerated with marginal increase in body weight (47.0 +/- 18.0 kg vs. 47.2 +/- 17.9 kg, P= 0.6) and was not associated with abnormal changes in laboratory parameters. Several participants were discontinued due to skin rash; in all cases, the rash resolved shortly after discontinuation of treatment. No patient developed Steven Johnson syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

Open-label lamotrigine treatment appears to be beneficial in the treatment of bipolar disorder and associated conditions in children. Future placebo-controlled, double-blind studies are warranted to confirm these findings.

Frequency of and rationales for the combined use of electroconvulsive therapy and antiepileptic drugs in Austria and the literature

Our aim was to observe the frequency of combination therapy using antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in Austria and the literature, and to provide rationales and recommendations based on clinical and molecular properties. The responsible ECT leaders of eight Austrian departments were contacted for information about combination therapy. A computerized PubMed database search was performed and supplemented by cross-referencing from papers, review articles and psychiatric manuals. The frequency of combination therapy in Austrian departments ranges between 0 and 85.7%. In 17 studies enrolling a total of 189 patients, 87 (46.0%) patients received combination therapy. Of these 87 patients, nine (10.3%) reported adverse effects. ECT and AEDs show overlapping clinical and molecular properties. Combination therapy is an observed reality and, according to the currently available literature, feasible. A comparison of clinical and molecular properties indicates possible augmentative effects, making combination therapy a promising alternative in treatment-resistant cases. But there is still a clear need for prospective case controlled data concerning side effects, safety profiles and effectiveness until it can be recommended.

A prospective open-label trial of extended-release carbamazepine monotherapy in children with bipolar disorder

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of extended release carbamazepine (CBZ-ER) monotherapy in the treatment of pediatric bipolar disorder (BD).

METHOD

This was an 8-week, open-label, prospective trial of CBZ-ER monotherapy (788 +/- 252 mg/day) to assess the effectiveness and tolerability of this compound in treating pediatric bipolar spectrum disorders. Assessments included the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS), Clinical Global Impressions-Improvement scale, Children's Depression Rating Scale, and Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Adverse events were assessed through spontaneous self-reports, vital signs weight monitoring, and laboratory analysis.

RESULTS

Of the 27 participating children with BD, 16 (59.%) completed the study. CBZ-ER treatment was associated with statistically significant, but modest, levels of improvement in mean YMRS scores (-10.1 +/- 10.2, p < 0.001) with end-point mean YMRS score (21.8 +/- 12.2) suggesting a lack of complete resolution of mania. CBZ-ER treatment also resulted in significant improvement in the severity of depressive, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and psychotic symptoms. With the exception of 2 participants who discontinued due to skin rash, CBZ-ER was well tolerated with marginal increase in body weight (0.8 +/- 2.5 kg, p = 0.04) and was not associated with any abnormal changes in laboratory parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Open-label CBZ-ER treatment was beneficial for the treatment of BD in children. Future controlled trials are warranted.

Is anticonvulsant treatment of mania a class effect? Data from randomized clinical trials

Our aim was to evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of anticonvulsant agents for the treatment of acute bipolar mania and ascertain if their effects on mania are a "class" effect. We conducted a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with placebo or active comparator, in acute bipolar mania in order to summarize available data on anticonvulsant treatment of mania/mixed episodes. We searched (PubMed/MEDLINE) with the combination of the words "acute mania" and "clinical trials" with each one of the following words: "anticonvulsants/antiepileptics,""valproic/valproate/divalproex,""carbamazepine,""oxcarbazepine,""lamotrigine,""gabapentin,""topiramate,""phenytoin,""zonisamide,""retigabine,""pregabalin,""tiagabine,""levetiracetam,""licarbazepine,""felbamate," and "vigabatrin." Original articles were found until November 1, 2008. Data from 35 randomized clinical trials suggested that not all anticonvulsants are efficacious for the treatment of acute mania. Valproate showed greater efficacy in reducing manic symptoms, with response rates around 50% compared to a placebo effect of 20-30%. It appears to have a more robust antimanic effect than lithium in rapid cycling and mixed episodes. As valproate, the antimanic effects of carbamazepine have been demonstrated. Evidences did not support the efficacy of the gabapentin, topiramate as well as lamotrigine as monotherapy in acute mania and mixed episodes. Oxcarbazepine data are inconclusive and data regarding other anticonvulsants are not available. Anticonvulsants are not a class when treating mania. While valproate and carbamazepine are significantly more effective than placebo, gabapentin, topiramate, and lamotrigine are not. However, some anticonvulsants may be efficacious in treating some psychiatric comorbidities that are commonly associated to bipolar illness.

Recent progress in the pharmacotherapy of bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is a common and highly disabling condition necessitating early and effective therapeutic intervention. This review focuses on recent progress in pharmacotherapies reported in the last few years. The recent literature suggests two distinct developmental themes. The first is the consolidation of knowledge concerning the role of the atypical antipsychotics and anticonvulsants in bipolar disorder, with increasing clarity regarding which actions are ‘class effects’ and which actions are, in contrast, specific to particular agents. The second theme is the first ‘glimmerings’ of the mood stabilizing efficacy of compounds with ‘novel’ actions, with tamoxifen being perhaps the agent of most interest. While demonstration of the efficacy of truly innovative compounds developed specifically for bipolar disorder has yet to occur, the gradual understanding of some of the critical pharmacological mechanisms of action of current agents suggests that this may not be too distant a reality.

Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised second edition--recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology

The British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines specify the scope and target of treatment for bipolar disorder. The second version, like the first, is based explicitly on the available evidence and presented, like previous Clinical Practice guidelines, as recommendations to aid clinical decision making for practitioners: they may also serve as a source of information for patients and carers. The recommendations are presented together with a more detailed but selective qualitative review of the available evidence. A consensus meeting, involving experts in bipolar disorder and its treatment, reviewed key areas and considered the strength of evidence and clinical implications. The guidelines were drawn up after extensive feedback from participants and interested parties. The strength of supporting evidence was rated. The guidelines cover the diagnosis of bipolar disorder, clinical management, and strategies for the use of medicines in treatment of episodes, relapse prevention and stopping treatment.

Adverse event load in bipolar participants receiving either carbamazepine immediate-release or extended-release capsules: a blinded, randomized study

In epilepsy, slow-release formulations of carbamazepine (CBZ) have fewer adverse events (AEs) compared with immediate-release (IR) formulations. As CBZ is used for mania, it is important to determine whether a similar pattern exists for bipolar patients. This was a 3-month, blinded, random-assignment study to an IR formulation or extended-release carbamazepine capsules (ERCC, Equetro) in type I or type II bipolar patients already on CBZ or clinically determined to benefit from it. Dosages were titrated to patients' clinical needs. Mood and AE ratings were performed at baseline and monthly for 3 months. There was no difference in mood ratings or in the total level of AEs in patients receiving IR or ERCC. However, autonomic AEs (5.0+/-1.1 vs. 2.0+/-0.7, P = 0.02) and gastrointestinal AEs (1.6+/-0.4 vs. 0.6+/-0.3, P = 0.05) were significantly less in participants receiving ERCC. CBZ level in patients receiving ERCC were higher (9.2+/-1.7 vs. IR 7.2+/-1.3 microg/ml, P = 0.005). Total AE load was directly related to CBZ level only in participants receiving the IR formulation. In conclusion, ERCC is better tolerated than IR CBZ in bipolar patients.

The contemporary face of bipolar illness: complex diagnostic and therapeutic challenges

Manic depression, or bipolar disorder, is a multifaceted illness with an inevitably complex treatment. The current article summarizes the current status of our knowledge and practice concerning its diagnosis and treatment. While the prototypic clinical picture concerns the "classic" bipolar disorder, today mixed episodes with incomplete recovery and significant psychosocial impairment are more frequent. The clinical picture of these mixed episodes is variable, eludes contemporary classification systems, and possibly includes a constellation of mental syndromes currently classified elsewhere. Treatment includes the careful combination of lithium, antiepileptics, atypical antipsychotics, and antidepressants, but not all of the agents in these broad categories are effective for the treatment of bipolar disorder.

Olanzapine plus carbamazepine v. carbamazepine alone in treating manic episodes

BACKGROUND

Combinations of olanzapine and carbamazepine are often used in clinical practice in the management of mania.

AIMS

To assess the efficacy and safety of olanzapine plus carbamazepine in mixed and manic bipolar episodes.

METHOD

Randomised, double-blind, 6-week trial of olanzapine (10-30 mg/day) plus carbamazepine (400-1200 mg/day; n=58) v. placebo plus carbamazepine (n=60) followed by open-label, 20-week olanzapine (10-30 mg/day) plus carbamazepine (400-1200 mg/day, n=86), with change in manic symptoms as main outcome measure. Safety and pharmacokinetics were also evaluated.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences (baseline to endpoint) in efficacy measures between treatment groups, but at 6 weeks triglyceride levels were significantly higher (P=0.008) and potentially clinically significant weight gain (>or=7%) occurred more frequently (24.6% v. 3.4%, P=0.002) in the combined olanzapine and carbamazepine group. Carbamazepine reduced olanzapine concentrations but olanzapine had no effect on carbamazepine concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of olanzapine and carbamazepine did not have superior efficacy to carbamazepine alone. The increases in weight and triglycerides observed during combination treatment are a matter of concern.

The effectiveness of anticonvulsants in psychiatric disorders

Anticonvulsant drugs are widely used in psychiatric indications. These include mainly alcohol and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndromes, panic and anxiety disorders, dementia, schizophrenia, affective disorders, bipolar affective disorders in particular, and, to some extent, personality disorders. A further area in which neurology and psychiatry overlap is pain conditions, in which some anticonvulsants, and also typical psychiatric medications such as antidepressants, are helpful. From the beginning of their psychiatric use, anticonvulsants have also been used to ameliorate specific symptoms of psychiatric disorders independently of their causality and underlying illness, eg, aggression, and, more recently, cognitive impairment, as seen in affective disorders and schizophrenia. With new anticonvulsants currently under development, it is likely that their use in psychiatry will further increase, and that psychiatrists need to learn about their differential efficacy and safety profiles to the same extent as do neurologists.

Adjunctive treatment of acute mania: a clinical overview

OBJECTIVE

To provide an overview of the available high quality evidence-base of studies of adjunctive pharmacologic treatment for acute mania.

METHOD

Double-blind controlled trials with adequate samples (n > 100) were identified through search of PubMed/MEDLINE and computerized abstracts from 2004-2006 meetings of the American Psychiatric Association, International Conference on Bipolar Disorder, and Collegium Internationale Neuro-Psychopharmacolium using key words mania, adjunct, and combination.

RESULTS

Placebo-controlled studies with positive results support the adjunctive use of five agents including valproate, olanzapine, risperidone, quetiapine, and haloperidol. Agents with only negative or failed placebo-controlled studies included carbamazepine, gabapentin, lamotrigine, topiramate, oxcarbazepine, and ziprasidone. We found no placebo-controlled study of many commonly used agents including lithium, aripiprazole, and clozapine. No studies explicitly excluded subjects, based on prior treatment with the monotherapy being offered and several studies limited randomization to patients with documented inadequate response to the monotherapy arm.

CONCLUSION

The available placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials support adjunctive therapy combining lithium or valproate with olanzapine, risperidone, haloperidol or quetiapine. The additional increment of antimanic efficacy of these combinations over monotherapy was similar in magnitude to that seen for the same agents as monotherapy in comparison with placebo. These additive benefits enhanced the tolerability of adverse effects sufficiently to allow a higher proportion of subjects receiving combination therapies to complete the studies than monotherapy treated patients. The available data has several shortcomings and the available studies are inadequate to conclusively determine whether combination treatment is more efficacious than monotherapy when used by subjects naive to both treatments. Nevertheless, adjunctive treatment, which combines agents with proven antimanic efficacy, offers an attractive option for patients with acute mania.

Bipolar disorder pharmacotherapy

Treatment options in the management of bipolar disorder continue to proliferate. Currently, all of the commonly prescribed atypical antipsychotics are indicated for the treatment of mania. Quetiapine and olanzapine/fluoxetine in combination are US FDA approved in the treatment of bipolar depression. Aripiprazole and lamotrigine have been FDA approved as maintenance therapies in the long-term management of bipolar disorder. Topiramate and gabapentin have been effectively discredited as first-line options in acute mania. This update seeks to summarize recent developments in bipolar disorder pharmacotherapy, offer insight into the nuance of using these newer agents effectively, review risks and benefits of using standard antidepressants in the treatment of bipolar depression and draw to the attention of readers the strengths and limitations of some of the studies that are shaping contemporary psychiatry’s approach to the patient with bipolar disorder.

Pharmacokinetics of aripiprazole and concomitant carbamazepine

The objective of this study was to assess the pharmacokinetics of aripiprazole when coadministered with carbamazepine using an open-label sequential treatment design in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Nine male patients were enrolled and received aripiprazole monotherapy (30 mg once daily) for 14 days, after which aripiprazole steady-state pharmacokinetics were assessed. Subjects were then administered carbamazepine together with aripiprazole for 4 to 6 weeks. The dose of carbamazepine was titrated to produce a trough serum concentration within the range of 8 to 12 mg/L. Aripiprazole pharmacokinetics were then assessed in the presence of carbamazepine. Six patients completed the study as designed. Coadministration with carbamazepine decreased the values of mean peak plasma concentration and area under the plasma concentration-time curve of aripiprazole by 66% and 71%, respectively (P = 0.001 and 0.002, respectively). Similarly, coadministration with carbamazepine decreased the values of mean peak plasma concentration and area under the plasma concentration-time curve over the 24-hour dosing interval of the major active metabolite of aripiprazole, dehydroaripiprazole, by 68% and 69%, respectively (P < 0.001). Both aripiprazole and dehydroaripiprazole are substrates for the cytochrome P-450 3A4 enzyme which is known to be induced by carbamazepine dosed to steady state. Thus, therapeutic doses of carbamazepine had significant effects on the pharmacokinetics of aripiprazole in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. When carbamazepine is added to aripiprazole therapy, aripiprazole dose should be doubled (to 20-30 mg/d). Additional dose increases should be based on clinical evaluation. When carbamazepine is withdrawn from combination therapy, aripiprazole dose should then be reduced.

Antiepileptic drugs and mood stability

This paper will discuss different definitions of the term "mood stabilizer" and highlight in detail the antiepileptic drugs carbamazepine, valproate and lamotrigine with respect to their relative strengths in stabilizing mood in bipolar patients. These drugs are heterogeneous in their mechanisms of action and in their efficacy to stabilize patients with epilepsy and the various mood states in bipolar disorder. Lamotrigine has obtained approval in several countries for the indication of preventing bipolar depressive episodes, which raises the question of differential efficacy of other antiepileptic drugs as mood stabilizers in the prevention of either depressive or hypo-/manic episodes. A Medline Search to 2006 was conducted for controlled acute and maintenance studies of the three scientifically and clinically most established antiepileptic drugs carbamazepine, valproate and lamotrigine. The medications discussed in this review only partly fulfill definitions of a mood stabilizer, and we suggest that future research should focus on combined treatment strategies.

Perceptions of weight gain and bipolar pharmacotherapy: results of a 2005 survey of physicians in clinical practice

OBJECTIVE

To assess the perceptions of clinicians in the psychiatric community about pharmacotherapy and its impact on weight gain and adverse metabolic effects in patients with bipolar disorder.

METHODS

In November 2005, self-administered questionnaires were sent to 7000 psychiatrists who treat bipolar disorder in their clinical practice. An additional mailing of these questionnaires was sent in January 2006 to a different group of 7000 psychiatrists who treat bipolar disorder in their clinical practice. The first 298 completed surveys were analyzed.

RESULTS

Almost half of the respondents (48%) were psychiatrists in individual private practice and 32% were in community mental health centers. About two-thirds of respondents reported that 30-60% of their bipolar patients were overweight. Thirty-eight percent of respondents reported metabolic syndrome present in 20-40% of their patients. Almost all respondents (96%) reported a 20 lb increase in patients' weight as a troublesome potential adverse event associated with the use of some agents. After initiating a new medication, more than 80% of respondents monitored their patients' weight, fasting plasma glucose level, and fasting lipid profile at regular intervals. However, 80% did not monitor waist circumference. Overall, respondents viewed several agents (aripiprazole, ziprasidone, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine) as not (or minimally) problematic in terms of weight gain and adverse metabolic concerns. Clozapine and olanzapine were viewed as highly problematic due to their propensity to induce weight gain and negatively influence lipid and glucose metabolism. Other agents considered to be minimally to moderately problematic in terms of weight gain and metabolic issues were quetiapine, risperidone, lithium, and valproate. Respondents reported that the profile of a bipolar agent in terms of weight gain and adverse metabolic effects was an important consideration in the management of bipolar disorder.

CONCLUSION

Although the study is limited by a low response rate and self-selection of respondents, clinicians who did respond were concerned about the risks of weight gain and metabolic disturbances in their patients treated with bipolar agents. For most parameters, such concerns were being integrated into clinical care. However, it appears that there is a need to increase clinicians' appreciation of the importance of abdominal obesity and the need to monitor waist circumference. A growing recognition of the differences in weight-gain potential and adverse metabolic effects among agents appears to have had a definite impact on prescribing patterns in the management of bipolar disorder.

Calming the bipolar storm: treating acute mania and mixed episodes in patients with bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is a seriously debilitating psychiatric disorder that greatly affects patients and their loved ones. Although bipolar disorder is one of the most frequently occurring mental disorders worldwide, many patients, particularly those with mixed mania, remain misdiagnosed. Compared to pure mania, mixed episodes of bipolar disorder present with symptoms that can be more challenging to treat. However, proper diagnosis and early treatment can usually alter the course of the illness, and remission is certainly possible. This expert roundtable supplement reviews the differences between acute manic and mixed episodes in patients with bipolar disorder, explains proper dosing and the advantages of different dosage formulations, and identifies the rationale for monotherapy and combination therapy in these patient populations. The aim is to educate clinicians about ways to diagnose and treat the mood state aggressively and safely, especially in light of the many new treatment options available.

Pharmacological interventions for bipolar youth: Developmental considerations

Despite the high prevalence rate, there have been relatively few controlled studies to systematically examine pharmacological treatments for children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. We review the differences in clinical characteristics between youth and adults with bipolar disorder and the extant literature of pharmacological treatments for children and adolescents with bipolar disorder, as well as discuss the effectiveness of pharmacological interventions for treating children and adolescents who are at familial risk for developing bipolar disorder. Although the number of controlled studies of youth with manic and mixed episodes is rapidly growing, there are few studies examining treatments for depression and the prevention of recurrent affective episodes in this population. Although children and adolescents with bipolar disorder commonly present with co-occurring psychiatric disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, there are limited data to guide the treatment of these patients. Recently, studies have begun to characterize prodromal manifestations of bipolar disorder and identify early intervention strategies for treating children and adolescents with an elevated risk for developing bipolar disorder.