Effect-based monitoring to integrate the mixture hazards of chemicals into water safety plans

Risk characterisation of chemicals of emerging concern in real-life water reuse applications

Water reuse is a viable option to address temporal or structural water shortages. However, the ubiquitous presence of chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) in natural systems, especially the aquatic environment, represents a significant obstacle to water reuse and the receiving environment. Therefore, an extensive literature review was performed to identify current water reuse practices at field scale, reported types and levels of CECs and their associated risks for human and environmental health. Treated wastewater was the primary reused water source, with agricultural reuse being the most frequently reported reuse application (28 %), followed by indirect-potable reuse (16 %). Contrary to potable reuse, it was observed that almost no studies applied additional treatment before water reuse for agricultural purposes. Based on calculated risk quotients, ecological risks were identified for perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, chlorpyrifos, triclocarban, and ethinylestradiol, and human health risks for perfluorooctanesulfonic acid and perfluorooctanoic acid. Environmental risks could be assessed for 77 % of detected CECs, while the human health risk assessment is limited to 28 %. For agricultural reuse, it was observed that CEC concentrations in produced crops were at acceptable levels. However, a thorough risk assessment of CECs during water reuse is currently limited due to a focus on a defined class of contaminants in the literature, i.e., pharmaceuticals, and falls short of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. Therefore, future water reuse studies should include a broader set of CECs and study additional mitigation options to decrease CEC concentrations before or during water reuse. Moreover, environmental harm caused by CECs during water reuse such as adverse effects on the microbial soil community or leaching to non-target sources has hardly been studied in the field and presents a knowledge gap.

A Novel Method for the Assessment of Feeding Rate as a Phenotypic Endpoint for the Impact of Pollutants in Daphnids

Traditional approaches for monitoring aquatic pollution primarily rely on chemical analysis and the detection of pollutants in the aqueous environments. However, these methods lack realism and mechanistic insight and, thus, are increasingly supported by effect-based methods, which offer sensitive endpoints. In this context, daphnids, a freshwater species used extensively in molecular ecotoxicology, offer fast and noninvasive approaches to assess the impact of pollutants. Among the phenotypic endpoints used, feeding rate is a highly sensitive approach because it provides evidence of physiological alterations even in sublethal concentrations. However, there has been no standardized method for measuring feeding rate in daphnids, and several approaches follow different protocols. There is a diversity among tests employing large volumes, extensive incubation times, and high animal densities, which in turn utilize measurements of algae via fluorescence, radiolabeling, or counting ingested cells. These tests are challenging and laborious and sometimes require cumbersome instrumentation. In the present study, we optimized the conditions of a miniaturized fast, sensitive, and high-throughput assay to assess the feeding rate based on the ingestion of fluorescent microparticles. The protocol was optimized in neonates in relation to the concentration of microplastic and the number of animals to increase reproducibility. Daphnids, following exposures to nonlethal concentrations, were incubated with microplastics; and, as filter feeders, they ingest microparticles. The new approach revealed differences in the physiology of daphnids in concentrations below the toxicity limits for a range of pollutants of different modes of action, thus proving feeding to be a more sensitive and noninvasive endpoint in pollution assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2211-2221. © 2024 The Author(s). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Informing the public about chemical mixtures in the local environment: Currently applied indicators in the Netherlands and ways forward

The current use of chemicals puts pressure on human and ecological health. Based on the Aarhus Convention, citizens have the right to have access to information on substances in their local environment. Providing this information is a major challenge, especially considering complex mixtures, as the current substance-by-substance risk assessment may not adequately address the risk of co-exposure to multiple substances. Here, we provide an overview of the currently available indicators in the Netherlands to explore current scientific possibilities to indicate the impacts of complex chemical mixtures in the environment on human health and ecology at the local scale. This is limited to impact estimates on freshwater species for 701 substances, impact estimates of four metals on soil organisms, and impacts on human health for particulate matter (PM10) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in air. The main limiting factors in developing and expanding these indicators to cover more compartments and substances are the availability of emission and concentration data of substances and dose-response relationships at the population (human health) or community (ecology) level. As ways forward, we propose; 1) developing cumulative assessment groups (CAGs) for substances on the European Pollutant Transfer and Release Register and Water Framework Directive substance lists, to enable the development of mixture indicators based on mixture risk assessment and concentration addition principles; 2) to gain insight into local mixtures by also applying these CAGs to emission data, which is available for soil and air for more substances than concentrations data; 3) the application of analytical non-target screening methods as well as effect-based methods for whole-mixture assessment.

Beyond the Drinking Water Directive: The use of reporter gene assays as an added tool for effect-based monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in drinking water sources

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are legacy organic micropollutants (OMPs) that are sporadically detected in drinking water (DW) sources. The European Drinking Water Directive requires EU member states to monitor 5 PAHs in DW and its sources. The Dutch national regulations require 6 additional PAHs to be monitored and 7 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). These indicator compounds act as representatives for large compound classes. PCBs alone comprise 209 congeners, it is evident that conventional chemical target analysis (GC-tQ-MS) alone is not sufficient to monitor these entire compound classes. This study investigated the application of reporter gene assays as effect-based methods (EBMs) to monitor PAHs and PCBs in DW sources. Herein, it was assessed what added value the bioassays can bring compared to the current approach of chemical target analysis for PCBs and PAHs. Regulated and non-regulated PAHs and PCBs were tested in four bioassays to determine the relative potency factors (RPFs) for these compounds. Non-regulated congeners were found to be active in the PAH-CALUX and anti-AR CALUX. An assessment of surface water (SW) spiked with standard mixtures containing PAHs and PCBs confirmed the predictable behavior of the PAH-CALUX. Moreover, the bioassay was able to detect AhR-mediated activity caused by non-regulated PAHs and PCBs, whereas this would have been missed by conventional chemical target analysis. Last, a field study was conducted in Dutch DW sources at six sampling moments. The PAH-CALUX detected AhR-mediated activity at all sampling moments and an ecological effect-based trigger (EBT) value was exceeded on multiple accounts. Combined application of GC-tQ-MS and the PAH-CALUX ensures compliancy with monitoring legislation and provides additional insights into potential hazards to humans and the environment.

A critical review on quantitative evaluation of aqueous toxicity in water quality assessment

Conventional chemical techniques have inherent limitations in detecting unknown chemical substances in water. As a result, effect-based methods have emerged as a viable alternative to overcome these limitations. These methods provide more accurate and intuitive evaluations of the toxic effects of water. While numerous studies have been conducted, only a few have been applied to national water quality monitoring. Therefore, it is crucial to develop toxicity evaluation methods and establish thresholds based on quantifying toxicity. This article provides an overview of the development and application of bioanalytical tools, including in vitro and in vivo bioassays. The available methods for quantifying toxicity are then summarized. These methods include aquatic life criteria for assessing the toxicity of a single compound, comprehensive wastewater toxicity testing for all contaminants in a water sample (toxicity units, whole effluent toxicity, the potential ecotoxic effects probe, the potential toxicology method, and the lowest ineffective dilution), methods based on mechanisms and relative toxicity ratios for substances with the same mode of action (the toxicity equivalency factors, toxic equivalents, bioanalytical equivalents), and effect-based trigger values for micropollutants. The article also highlights the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Finally, it proposes potential areas for applying toxicity quantification methods and offers insights into future research directions. This review emphasizes the significance of enhancing the evaluation methods for assessing aqueous toxicity in water quality assessment.

The contribution of PFAS to thyroid hormone-displacing activity in Dutch waters: A comparison between two in vitro bioassays with chemical analysis

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of xenobiotics that are widely distributed throughout the aquatic environment. Many PFAS are possible thyroid hormone (TH) system disrupting compounds, because they have the capacity to -amongst other- inhibit the TH thyroxine (T4) from binding to its transport protein transthyretin (TTR). This study investigated the occurrence of TH-displacing activity in the Dutch water cycle, and more specifically, the contribution of PFAS to this effect. Over one year of monitoring data of 29 PFAS (linear and branched) showed the continuous presence of PFAS in drinking waters and their surface water sources. Secondly, the FITC-T4 and TTR-TRβ-CALUX bioassays were mutually compared using positive (HPLC-grade water spiked with PFOA) and negative control samples (HPLC-grade water), as well as relative potency factors (RPFs) of up to 20 PFAS congeners. Both assays were found to be suitable for measuring TH-displacing activity in water samples. As a third aim, a field study was performed in the Dutch water cycle that was comprised of samples from drinking water, surface water, PFAS contaminated sites, and 2 wastewater treatment plants. All samples were analyzed with 1. chemical analysis for 29 PFAS, 2. the FITC-T4 bioassay, and 3. the TTR-TRβ-CALUX bioassay. The bioassays mutually showed good correlation (R2 0.85). Bioanalytical equivalent concentrations (BEQ) based on chemically-determined concentrations and RPFs (BEQchem) revealed that analyzed PFAS only explained ≤4.1 % of their activity in water extracts measured by both bioassays (BEQbio). This indicated that as yet unknown compounds contribute to the majority of the measured TH-displacing activity. Moreover, water treatment processes (e.g. DW production from SW) showed a larger contribution of target PFAS to the BEQbio. This could be a first lead to identify unknown compounds that contribute to this activity, and as such, enable the assessment of possible risks associated by the occurrence of TH-displacing activity in water.

Application of Effect-Based Methods to Water Quality Monitoring: Answering Frequently Asked Questions by Water Quality Managers, Regulators, and Policy Makers

Effect-based methods (EBM) have great potential for water quality monitoring as they can detect the mixture effects of all active known and unknown chemicals in a sample, which cannot be addressed by chemical analysis alone. To date, EBM have primarily been applied in a research context, with a lower level of uptake by the water sector and regulators. This is partly due to concerns regarding the reliability and interpretation of EBM. Using evidence from the peer-reviewed literature, this work aims to answer frequently asked questions about EBM. The questions were identified through consultation with the water industry and regulators and cover topics related to the basis for using EBM, practical considerations regarding reliability, sampling for EBM and quality control, and what to do with the information provided by EBM. The information provided in this work aims to give confidence to regulators and the water sector to stimulate the application of EBM for water quality monitoring.

Effect-Based Trigger Values Are Essential for the Uptake of Effect-Based Methods in Water Safety Planning

Effect-based methods (EBMs) using in vitro bioassays and well plate-based in vivo assays are recommended for water quality monitoring because they can capture the mixture effects of the many chemicals present in water. Many in vitro bioassays are highly sensitive, so an effect in a bioassay does not necessarily indicate poor chemical water quality. Consequently, effect-based trigger values (EBTs) have been introduced to differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable chemical water quality and are required for the wider acceptance of EBMs by the water sector and regulatory bodies. These EBTs have been derived for both drinking water and surface water to protect human and ecological health, respectively, and are available for assays indicative of specific receptor-mediated effects, as well as assays indicative of adaptive stress responses, apical effects, and receptor-mediated effects triggered by many chemicals. An overview of currently available EBTs is provided, and a simple approach is proposed to predict interim EBTs for assays currently without an EBT based on the effect concentration of the assay reference compound. There was good agreement between EBTs predicted using this simplistic approach and EBTs from the literature derived using more robust methods. Finally, an interpretation framework that outlines the steps to take if the effect of a sample exceeds the EBT was developed to help facilitate the uptake of EBMs in routine water quality monitoring and water safety planning for drinking water production. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:714-726. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.