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Zhao HX, Zhang TY, Wang H, Hu CY, Tang YL, Xu B. Occurrence of fungal spores in drinking water: A review of pathogenicity, odor, chlorine resistance and control strategies. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 853:158626. [PMID: 36087680 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Fungi in drinking water have been long neglected due to the lack of convenient analysis methods, widely accepted regulations and efficient control strategies. However, in the last few decades, fungi in drinking water have been widely recognized as opportunity pathogens that cause serious damage to the health of immune-compromised individuals. In drinking water treatment plants, fungal spores are more resistant to chlorine disinfection than bacteria and viruses, which can regrow in drinking water distribution systems and subsequently pose health threats to water consumers. In addition, fungi in drinking water may represent an ignored source of taste and odor (T&O). This review identified 74 genera of fungi isolated from drinking water and presented their detailed taxonomy, sources and biomass levels in drinking water systems. The typical pathways of exposure of water-borne fungi and the main effects on human health are clarified. The fungi producing T&O compounds and their products are summarized. Data on free chlorine or monochloramine inactivation of fungal spores and other pathogens are compared. At the first time, we suggested four chlorine-resistant mechanisms including aggregation to tolerate chlorine, strong cell walls, cellular responses to oxidative stress and antioxidation of melanin, which are instructive for the future fungi control attempts. Finally, the inactivation performance of fungal spores by various technologies are comprehensively analyzed. The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of fungi distribution and risks in drinking water, provide insight into the chlorine resistance mechanisms of fungal spores and propose approaches for the control of fungi in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng-Xuan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Tian-Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Hong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Chen-Yan Hu
- College of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power, Shanghai 200090, PR China
| | - Yu-Lin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
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Ye T, Zhang TY, Tian FX, Xu B. The fate and transformation of iodine species in UV irradiation and UV-based advanced oxidation processes. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 206:117755. [PMID: 34695669 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Iodinated disinfection byproducts (I-DBPs) formed in water treatment are of emerging concern due to their high toxicity and the tase-and-odor problems associated with iodinated trihalomethanes (I-THMs). Iodoacetic acid and dichloroiodomethane are currently regulated in Shenzhen, China and the Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China has also been considering regulating I-DBPs. Iodide (I-), organoiodine compounds (e.g., iodinated X-ray contrast media [ICM]), and iodate (IO3-) are the three common iodine sources in aquatic environment that lead to I-DBP formation. While UV irradiation effectively inactivate a wide range of microorganisms in water, it induces the transformation of these iodine sources, enabling the formation of I-DBPs. This review focuses on the fate and transformation of these iodine sources in UV-based water treatment (i.e., UV irradiation and UV-based advanced oxidation processes [UV-AOPs]) and the formation of I-DBPs in post-disinfection. I- released in UV-based treatments of ICM and can be oxidized in subsequent disinfection to hypoiodous acid (HOI), which reacts with natural organic matter (NOM) to produce I-DBPs. Both UV and UV-AOPs are not able to fully mineralize ICM and completely oxidize the released I- to (except UV/O3). Results reveal that UV and UV-AOPs are adequate for I-DBP degradation but require high UV doses. While the ideal I-DBP mitigation strategy awaits to be developed, understanding their sources and formation pathways aids in informed selections of water treatment processes, empowers water suppliers to meet drinking water standards, and minimizes consumers' exposure to I-DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Ye
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD 57701, USA.
| | - Tian-Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Fu-Xiang Tian
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418 China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China.
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Seo YS, Lee G, Song S, Kim K, Cho M. Combinatorial treatment using citric acid, malic acid, and phytic acid for synergistical inactivation of foodborne pathogenic bacteria. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-021-0751-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Zhou X, Zhang K, Zhang T, Cen C, Pan R. Biotransformation of halophenols into earthy-musty haloanisoles: Investigation of dominant bacterial contributors in drinking water distribution systems. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 403:123693. [PMID: 33264884 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Microorganisms in drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) can O-methylate toxic halophenols (HPs) into earthy-musty haloanisoles (HAs). However, the dominant HA-producing bacterial species and their O-methylation properties are still unknown. In this study, eight bacterial strains from DWDS were isolated and the community abundances of the related genera in bulk water and biofilms as well as their O-methylation properties were investigated. Among the genera discovered in this study, Sphingomonas and Pseudomonas are dominant and play important roles in DWDSs. All bacteria could simultaneously convert five HPs to the corresponding HAs. Two Sphingomonas ursincola strains mainly produced 2,3,6-trichloroanisole (2,3,6-TCA) (2.48 × 10-9-1.18 × 10-8 ng/CFU), 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (2,4,6-TCA) (8.12 × 10-10-3.11 × 10-9 ng/CFU) and 2,4,6-tribromoanisole (2,4,6-TBA) (2.95 × 10-9-3.21 × 10-9 ng/CFU), while two Pseudomonas moraviensis strains preferred to generate 2-monochloroanisole (2-MCA) (1.19 × 10-9-3.70 × 10-9 ng/CFU) and 2,4-dichloroanisole (2,4-DCA) (3.81 × 10-9-1.20 × 10-8 ng/CFU). Among the chloramphenicol-susceptible strains, four strains contained inducible O-methyltransferases (OMTs), while the O-methylations of the others were expressed constitutively. All bacteria could use S-adenosyl methionine as methyl donor. Potential taste and odor (T & O) risks of five HAs in DWDS followed an order of 2,4,6-TBA > 2,4,6-TCA > 2,3,6-TCA > 2,4-DCA > 2-MCA. The recommended 2,4,6-TCP criteria for T & O control is 0.003-0.07 mg/L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyan Zhou
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Kejia Zhang
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Tuqiao Zhang
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Cheng Cen
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Renjie Pan
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
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Dietrich AM, Burlingame GA. A review: The challenge, consensus, and confusion of describing odors and tastes in drinking water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 713:135061. [PMID: 31836233 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Documentation exists for many chemicals that cause tastes and odors in water, however, water suppliers do not routinely monitor for these chemicals. Effective management of a taste-and-odor (T&O) problem in drinking water often requires good verbal description of the offending sensory experience. Experience demonstrates that obtaining verbal descriptions is challenging. To improve our understanding of communications, sensory science literature was reviewed to obtain descriptors for twenty-one chemicals acknowledged to cause T&O issues in drinking water. The review focused on pure chemicals above their odor threshold concentrations. Results reveal that descriptors follow four general categories. For select chemicals, strong consensus exists around a single or very few appropriate descriptors. Examples are "salty" for sodium and "chlorinous" for free chlorine. The next category has moderate agreement for several descriptors, with at least one major descriptor. For example the microbiological metabolite 2-methylisoborneol is most commonly described as "earthy/musty/moldy" but also "camphor, grass, and sweet". Some chemicals have weak agreement on their descriptors, but overall associate words with similar meaning. An example is the chemical toluene with descriptors of "solvent-like" words including "solvent", "gasoline", "paint-like", "cleaning fluid", and "etherish", but also "vinegar" and "sweet". The last chemical category possesses diverse descriptors with no consensus. For example, the oxylipin n-heptanal is described as "oily, fatty, chemical, musty/earthy/moldy, rancid, sweaty, grass, sickening, and stale". While descriptor diversity for select chemicals may not identify the cause of T&O, understanding that certain chemicals are perceived very differently aids in effective communications and eliminates confusion from expecting consumers or utility personnel to respond with consensus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M Dietrich
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Food Science and Technology, Virginia Tech, 1145 Perry Street, 418 Durham Hall, MC 0246, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
| | - Gary A Burlingame
- Bureau of Laboratory Services, Philadelphia Water Department, 1500 E. Hunting Park Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19124, United States.
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Barriers and Facilitators to Chlorine Tablet Distribution and Use in Emergencies: A Qualitative Assessment. WATER 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/w11061121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Chlorine tablets are commonly distributed for household water treatment in emergencies. However, confirmed use after distribution ranges widely (from 7–87%), which raises concerns about chlorine tablet effectiveness, as measured by acceptance and appropriate use. To investigate chlorine tablet effectiveness, we conducted nine key informant interviews (KIIs) on tablet distribution in emergencies in general, five KIIs on chlorine taste and odor acceptance and rejection specifically, and a literature review on chlorine taste and odor concerns. We found: (1) chlorine tablets are regarded as one of the most effective water treatment methods and are often considered appropriate in emergency response, (2) dosing confusion and taste and odor rejection are perceived as the main problems limiting effectiveness, and (3) the primary solutions suggested for these problems were social and behavioral. We recommend that social and behavioral scientists are routinely integrated into chlorine tablet programming to improve user feedback and behavioral interventions for chlorine tablet promotion in emergencies. We also suggest that more research is conducted on chlorine taste and odor rejection in vulnerable populations, and that improved guidance is developed to facilitate intra-agency coordination and select, promote, and monitor tablets appropriate for each context.
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Zhou X, Zhang K, Zhang T, Li C, Mao X. An ignored and potential source of taste and odor (T&O) issues—biofilms in drinking water distribution system (DWDS). Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101:3537-3550. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8223-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Enger KS, Leak ES, Aw TG, Coulliette AD, Rose JB. Antibacterial and antiviral effectiveness of two household water treatment devices that use monobrominated hydantoinylated polystyrene. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:950-960. [PMID: 27959873 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Many different household water treatment (HWT) methods have been researched and promoted to mitigate the serious burden of diarrheal disease in developing countries. However, HWT methods using bromine have not been extensively evaluated. Two gravity-fed HWT devices (AquaSure™ and Waterbird™) were used to test the antimicrobial effectiveness of HaloPure® Br beads (monobrominated hydantoinylated polystyrene) that deliver bromine. As water flows over the beads, reactive bromine species are eluted, which inactivate microorganisms. To assess log10 reduction values (LRVs) for Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella enterica Typhimurium, bacteriophage MS2, human adenovirus 2 (HAdV2), and murine norovirus (MN), these organisms were added to potable water and sewage-contaminated water. These organisms were quantified before and after water treatment by the HWT devices. On average, 6 LRVs against Vibrio were attained, as well as 5 LRVs against Salmonella, 4 LRVs against MS2, 5 LRVs against HAdV2, and 3 LRVs against MN. Disinfection was similar regardless of whether sewage was present. Polymer beads delivering bromine to drinking water are a potentially effective and useful component of HWT methods in developing countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle S Enger
- Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan, 232 S. Capitol Avenue, mail code L05F, Lansing, MI 48933, USA E-mail:
| | - Emaly S Leak
- Chobani LLC, 669 County Road 25, New Berlin, NY 13411, USA
| | - Tiong Gim Aw
- Department of Global Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2100, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Angela D Coulliette
- Polio and Picornavirus Laboratory Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC/OID/NCIRD/DVD, CLFT Building 17, Ropm 6044, MS G-17, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Joan B Rose
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, 480 Wilson Road, Room 13, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Marois-Fiset JT, Shaheed A, Brown J, Dorea C. Laboratory evaluation of a new coagulant/disinfectant point-of-use water treatment product for emergencies. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 121:892-902. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - A. Shaheed
- Independent Consultant; Geneva Switzerland
| | - J. Brown
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering; Georgia Institute of Technology; Atlanta GA USA
| | - C.C. Dorea
- Département de génie civil et de génie des eaux; Université Laval; Québec City QC Canada
- Environment & Regional Development Graduate Program (PGDRA); Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR); Porto Velho Brazil
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Zhang N, Xu B, Qi F, Kumirska J. The occurrence of haloanisoles as an emerging odorant in municipal tap water of typical cities in China. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 98:242-249. [PMID: 27107142 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 04/10/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In this study, occurrence of the haloanisoles odorous compounds in tap water of Chinese cities, were investigated by solid-phase microextraction (SPME)-GC/MS analysis. This study revealed the occurrence of four kinds of haloanisoles in 22 cities of China in both summer and winter. Except 2,4,6-tribromoanisole (2,4,6-TBA), all studied haloanisoles showed higher frequency of detection. 2,3,6-Trichloroanisole (2,3,6-TCA) and 2,3,4-trichloroanisole (2,3,4-TCA) showed higher occurrence concentration; however, the relative odor values of them was lower. These values of 2,4,6-TBA and 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (2,4,6-TCA) in all samples were greater than zero in both summer and winter, indicating the odor from haloanisoles could be felt by human noise. This study further showed that Beijing exhibited most serious occurrence of haloanisoles that were depended on the season and drinking water distribution system (country and city). From this study, it was confirmed that haloanisoles was important taste and odor compounds in tap water of China. Based on the survey of occurrence of halophenol and residual chlorine, the possible source for the formation of haloanisoles in tap water was discussed. Furthermore, several suggestions on control the haloanisoles odor in drinking water treatment plant and water distribution system were provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Zhang
- Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Bingbing Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, PR China.
| | - Fei Qi
- Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China.
| | - Jolanta Kumirska
- Department of Environmental Analysis, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Poland
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Marcussen H, Holm PE, Hansen HC. Composition, Flavor, Chemical Foodsafety, and Consumer Preferences of Bottled Water. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2013; 12:333-352. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Helle Marcussen
- Dept. of Plant and Environmental Sciences; Faculty of Science, Univ. of Copenhagen; Thorvaldsensvej 40; 1871 Frederiksberg C; Denmark
| | - Peter E. Holm
- Dept. of Plant and Environmental Sciences; Faculty of Science, Univ. of Copenhagen; Thorvaldsensvej 40; 1871 Frederiksberg C; Denmark
| | - Hans Chr.B. Hansen
- Dept. of Plant and Environmental Sciences; Faculty of Science, Univ. of Copenhagen; Thorvaldsensvej 40; 1871 Frederiksberg C; Denmark
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