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Kim GG, Chae DH, Park MS, Yoo SH. Factors Influencing 1-Year Medication Adherence of Korean Ischemic Stroke Survivors. Int J Behav Med 2020; 27:225-234. [PMID: 32026290 DOI: 10.1007/s12529-020-09854-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Medication adherence is important for secondary stroke prevention. However, suboptimal adherence to medication among patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack is reportedly 30.9%. We assessed medication adherence of Korean stroke survivors within 1 year of acute ischemic stroke and identified factors that influence adherence. METHODS We consecutively enrolled ischemic stroke survivors who visited the Department of Neurology of a university hospital from March 9 to June 15, 2016. Data were collected by face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire which assessed general characteristics, clinical characteristics, medication beliefs, social support, and depression. Medication adherence was measured using the 8-item Morisky Medication Adherence Scale. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify factors independently associated with medication adherence. RESULTS Of the total 250 participants, 183 (73%) were in the optimal adherence group. Age (p = 0.035), smoking (p = 0.020), number of prescribed medicines (p = 0.037), frequency of daily doses (p = 0.040), and beliefs about medication (p < 0.001) were associated with medication adherence. Optimal medication adherence was associated with being a non-smoker (OR, 3.19; 95% CI, 1.29-7.87; p = 0.012), more prescribed medicines (OR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.05-1.54; p = 0.014), less frequency of daily doses (OR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.18-0.79; p = 0.010), and stronger beliefs about medication (OR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.03-1.15; p = 0.004). CONCLUSION To improve medication adherence of stroke survivors, post-stroke care should focus on bolstering patients' belief in the necessity of medication and encouraging lifestyle modifications, such as quitting smoking, as well as prescribing medicine with simple regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gye-Gyoung Kim
- College of Nursing, Chonnam National University, 160 Baekseo-ro, Dong-gu, Gwangju, 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Duck-Hee Chae
- College of Nursing, Chonnam National University, 160 Baekseo-ro, Dong-gu, Gwangju, 61469, Republic of Korea
| | - Man-Seok Park
- Department of Neurology, Medical school, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hee Yoo
- College of Nursing, Chonnam National University, 160 Baekseo-ro, Dong-gu, Gwangju, 61469, Republic of Korea.
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Abdullahi W, Brzica H, Hirsch NA, Reilly BG, Ronaldson PT. Functional Expression of Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptide 1a4 Is Regulated by Transforming Growth Factor- β/Activin Receptor-like Kinase 1 Signaling at the Blood-Brain Barrier. Mol Pharmacol 2018; 94:1321-1333. [PMID: 30262595 DOI: 10.1124/mol.118.112912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) drug delivery can be achieved by targeting drug uptake transporters such as Oatp1a4. In fact, many drugs that can improve neurologic outcomes in CNS diseases [3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors (i.e., statins)] are organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) transport substrates. To date, transport properties and regulatory mechanisms of Oatp1a4 at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) have not been rigorously studied. Such knowledge is critical to develop Oatp1a4 for optimization of CNS drug delivery and for improved treatment of neurological diseases. Our laboratory has demonstrated that the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)/activin receptor-like kinase 1 (ALK1) signaling agonist bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP-9) increases functional expression of Oatp1a4 in rat brain microvessels. Here, we expand on this work and show that BMP-9 treatment increases blood-to-brain transport and brain exposure of established OATP transport substrates (i.e., taurocholate, atorvastatin, and pravastatin). We also demonstrate that BMP-9 activates the TGF-β/ALK1 pathway in brain microvessels as indicated by increased nuclear translocation of specific Smad proteins associated with signaling mediated by the ALK1 receptor (i.e., pSmad1/5/8). Furthermore, we report that an activated Smad protein complex comprised of phosphorylated Smad1/5/8 and Smad4 is formed following BMP-9 treatment and binds to the promoter of the Slco1a4 gene (i.e., the gene that encodes Oatp1a4). This signaling mechanism causes increased expression of Slco1a4 mRNA. Overall, this study provides evidence that Oatp1a4 transport activity at the BBB is directly regulated by TGF-β/ALK1 signaling and indicates that this pathway can be targeted for control of CNS delivery of OATP substrate drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wazir Abdullahi
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Hrvoje Brzica
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Nicholas A Hirsch
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Bianca G Reilly
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Patrick T Ronaldson
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
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Sun P, Hernandez-Guillamón M, Campos-Martorell M, Simats A, Montaner J, Unzeta M, Solé M. Simvastatin blocks soluble SSAO/VAP-1 release in experimental models of cerebral ischemia: Possible benefits for stroke-induced inflammation control. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2017; 1864:542-553. [PMID: 29175057 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Beyond cholesterol reduction, statins mediate their beneficial effects on stroke patients through pleiotropic actions. They have shown anti-inflammatory properties by a number of different mechanisms, including the inhibition of NF-κB transcriptional activity and the consequent increase and release of adhesion molecules. We have studied simvastatin's effects on the vascular enzyme semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase/vascular adhesion protein 1 (SSAO/VAP-1), which is involved in stroke-mediated brain injury. SSAO/VAP-1 has leukocyte-binding capacity and mediates the expression of other adhesion proteins through signaling molecules generated by its catalytic activity. Our results indicate that soluble SSAO/VAP-1 is released into the bloodstream after an ischemic stimulus, in parallel with an increase in E-selectin and VCAM-1 and correlating with infarct volume. Simvastatin blocks soluble SSAO/VAP-1 release and prevents E-selectin and VCAM-1 overexpression as well. Simvastatin also effectively blocks SSAO/VAP-1-mediated leukocyte adhesion, although it is not an enzymatic inhibitor of SSAO in vitro. In addition, simvastatin-induced changes in adhesion molecules are greater in human brain endothelial cell cultures expressing SSAO/VAP-1, compared to those not expressing it, indicating some synergic effect with SSAO/VAP-1. We think that part of the beneficial effect of simvastatin in stroke is mediated by the attenuation of the SSAO/VAP-1-dependent inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Sun
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mar Hernandez-Guillamón
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Institut de Recerca Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Campos-Martorell
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Institut de Recerca Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alba Simats
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Institut de Recerca Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Montaner
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Institut de Recerca Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mercedes Unzeta
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Montse Solé
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
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Abdullahi W, Brzica H, Ibbotson K, Davis TP, Ronaldson PT. Bone morphogenetic protein-9 increases the functional expression of organic anion transporting polypeptide 1a4 at the blood-brain barrier via the activin receptor-like kinase-1 receptor. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2017; 37:2340-2345. [PMID: 28387157 PMCID: PMC5531361 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x17702916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Targeting uptake transporters such as organic anion transporting polypeptide 1a4 (Oatp1a4) at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) can facilitate central nervous system (CNS) drug delivery. Effective blood-to-brain drug transport via this strategy requires characterization of mechanisms that modulate BBB transporter expression and/or activity. Here, we show that activation of activin receptor-like kinase (ALK)-1 using bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-9 increases Oatp1a4 protein expression in rat brain microvessels in vivo. These data indicate that targeting ALK1 signaling with BMP-9 modulates BBB Oatp1a4 expression, presenting a unique opportunity to optimize drug delivery and improve pharmacotherapy for CNS diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wazir Abdullahi
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Hrvoje Brzica
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Kathryn Ibbotson
- 2 Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Thomas P Davis
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Patrick T Ronaldson
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Abdullahi W, Davis TP, Ronaldson PT. Functional Expression of P-glycoprotein and Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptides at the Blood-Brain Barrier: Understanding Transport Mechanisms for Improved CNS Drug Delivery? AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 19:931-939. [PMID: 28447295 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-017-0081-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Drug delivery to the central nervous system (CNS) is greatly limited by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Physical and biochemical properties of the BBB have rendered treatment of CNS diseases, including those with a hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) component, extremely difficult. Targeting endogenous BBB transporters from the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily (i.e., P-glycoprotein (P-gp)) or from the solute carrier (SLC) family (i.e., organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs in humans; Oatps in rodents)) has been suggested as a strategy that can improve delivery of drugs to the brain. With respect to P-gp, direct pharmacological inhibition using small molecules or selective regulation by targeting intracellular signaling pathways has been explored. These approaches have been largely unsuccessful due to toxicity issues and unpredictable pharmacokinetics. Therefore, our laboratory has proposed that optimization of CNS drug delivery, particularly for treatment of diseases with an H/R component, can be achieved by targeting Oatp isoforms at the BBB. As the major drug transporting Oatp isoform, Oatp1a4 has demonstrated blood-to-brain transport of substrate drugs with neuroprotective properties. Furthermore, our laboratory has shown that targeting Oatp1a4 regulation (i.e., TGF-β signaling mediated via the ALK-1 and ALK-5 transmembrane receptors) represents an opportunity to control Oatp1a4 functional expression for the purpose of delivering therapeutics to the CNS. In this review, we will discuss limitations of targeting P-gp-mediated transport activity and the advantages of targeting Oatp-mediated transport. Through this discussion, we will also provide critical information on novel approaches to improve CNS drug delivery by targeting endogenous uptake transporters expressed at the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wazir Abdullahi
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, P.O. Box 245050, Tucson, Arizona, 85724-5050, USA
| | - Thomas P Davis
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, P.O. Box 245050, Tucson, Arizona, 85724-5050, USA
| | - Patrick T Ronaldson
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, P.O. Box 245050, Tucson, Arizona, 85724-5050, USA.
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Villa RF, Ferrari F, Moretti A. Effects of Neuroprotectants Before and After Stroke: Statins and Anti-hypertensives. SPRINGER SERIES IN TRANSLATIONAL STROKE RESEARCH 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-45345-3_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Smith CJ, Denes A, Tyrrell PJ, Di Napoli M. Phase II anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating drugs for acute ischaemic stroke. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2015; 24:623-43. [PMID: 25727670 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2015.1020110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide and the leading cause of adult neurological disability. Despite advances in stroke unit care, and increasing use of thrombolysis, there remains an urgent need for safe and effective treatments for acute ischaemic stroke. However, this is against a backdrop of multiple failures in translational drug development. Cerebral ischaemia initiates a complex cascade of immune and inflammatory pathways in the brain microvasculature and periphery, which contribute to the evolution of cerebral injury, resolution and repair. Targeting specific inflammatory or immune pathways, therefore, represents an attractive treatment strategy in acute ischaemic stroke. Although anti-inflammatory drugs have already failed in clinical trial development, several are currently at the Phase II developmental stage. AREAS COVERED The authors highlight several candidate drugs, which modulate a range of inflammatory and immune pathways, and have been investigated in pre-clinical and Phase II studies to date. EXPERT OPINION Drugs targeting inflammatory and immune pathways offer theoretical advantages including potentially longer therapeutic time windows and effects complementary to thrombolysis (ameliorating reperfusion injury). Fundamental changes in the approach to pre-clinical and clinical drug development are required to facilitate successful translation of promising candidate drugs into clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig J Smith
- Greater Manchester Comprehensive Stroke Centre, Department of Medical Neurosciences, Salford Royal Foundation Trust , Salford , UK
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8
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Statins in neurological disorders: An overview and update. Pharmacol Res 2014; 88:74-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2014.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Simvastatin pretreatment protects cerebrum from neuronal injury by decreasing the expressions of phosphor-CaMK II and AQP4 in ischemic stroke rats. J Mol Neurosci 2014; 54:591-601. [PMID: 24752488 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-014-0307-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Excitotoxicity and cytotoxic edema are the two major factors resulting in neuronal injury during brain ischemia and reperfusion. Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMK II), the downstream signal molecular of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), is a mediator in the excitotoxicity. Aquaporin 4 (AQP4), expressed mainly in the brain, is an important aquaporin to control the flux of water. In a previous study, we had reported that pretreatment of simvastatin protected the cerebrum from ischemia and reperfusion injury by decreasing neurological deficit score and infarct area (Zhu et al. PLoS One 7:e51552, 2012). The present study used a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model to further explore the pleiotropic effect of simvastatin via CaMK II and AQP4. The results showed that simvastatin reduced degenerated cells and brain edema while decreasing the protein expressions of phosphor-CaMK II and AQP4, and increasing the ratios of Bcl-2/Bax, which was independent of cholesterol-lowering effect. Immunocomplexes formed between the subunit of NMDARs-NR3A and AQP4 were detected for the first time. It was concluded that simvastatin could protect the cerebrum from neuronal excitotoxicity and cytotoxic edema by downregulating the expressions of phosphor-CaMK II and AQP4, and that the interaction between NR3A and AQP4 might provide the base for AQP4 involving in the signaling pathways mediated by NMDARs.
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Kozarov E, Padro T, Badimon L. View of statins as antimicrobials in cardiovascular risk modification. Cardiovasc Res 2014; 102:362-74. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvu058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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Yeganeh B, Wiechec E, Ande SR, Sharma P, Moghadam AR, Post M, Freed DH, Hashemi M, Shojaei S, Zeki AA, Ghavami S. Targeting the mevalonate cascade as a new therapeutic approach in heart disease, cancer and pulmonary disease. Pharmacol Ther 2014; 143:87-110. [PMID: 24582968 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The cholesterol biosynthesis pathway, also known as the mevalonate (MVA) pathway, is an essential cellular pathway that is involved in diverse cell functions. The enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase (HMGCR) is the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis and catalyzes the conversion of HMG-CoA to MVA. Given its role in cholesterol and isoprenoid biosynthesis, the regulation of HMGCR has been intensely investigated. Because all cells require a steady supply of MVA, both the sterol (i.e. cholesterol) and non-sterol (i.e. isoprenoid) products of MVA metabolism exert coordinated feedback regulation on HMGCR through different mechanisms. The proper functioning of HMGCR as the proximal enzyme in the MVA pathway is essential under both normal physiologic conditions and in many diseases given its role in cell cycle pathways and cell proliferation, cholesterol biosynthesis and metabolism, cell cytoskeletal dynamics and stability, cell membrane structure and fluidity, mitochondrial function, proliferation, and cell fate. The blockbuster statin drugs ('statins') directly bind to and inhibit HMGCR, and their use for the past thirty years has revolutionized the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and cardiovascular diseases, in particular coronary heart disease. Initially thought to exert their effects through cholesterol reduction, recent evidence indicates that statins also have pleiotropic immunomodulatory properties independent of cholesterol lowering. In this review we will focus on the therapeutic applications and mechanisms involved in the MVA cascade including Rho GTPase and Rho kinase (ROCK) signaling, statin inhibition of HMGCR, geranylgeranyltransferase (GGTase) inhibition, and farnesyltransferase (FTase) inhibition in cardiovascular disease, pulmonary diseases (e.g. asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)), and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behzad Yeganeh
- Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Department of Physiology & Experimental Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Emilia Wiechec
- Dept. Clinical & Experimental Medicine, Division of Cell Biology & Integrative Regenerative Med. Center (IGEN), Linköping University, Sweden
| | - Sudharsana R Ande
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Pawan Sharma
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, 4C46 HRIC, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Adel Rezaei Moghadam
- Scientific Association of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran; Young Researchers and Elite Club, Ardabil Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Martin Post
- Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Department of Physiology & Experimental Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Darren H Freed
- Department of Physiology, St. Boniface Research Centre, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Mohammad Hashemi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Shahla Shojaei
- Department of Biochemistry, Recombinant Protein Laboratory, Medical School, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Amir A Zeki
- U.C. Davis, School of Medicine, U.C. Davis Medical Center, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Center for Comparative Respiratory Biology & Medicine, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Saeid Ghavami
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, St. Boniface Research Centre, Manitoba Institute of Child Health, Biology of Breathing Theme, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.
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Wood WG, Mΰller WE, Eckert GP. Statins and Neuroprotection: Basic Pharmacology Needed. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 50:214-20. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8647-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Jin R, Zhu X, Liu L, Nanda A, Granger DN, Li G. Simvastatin attenuates stroke-induced splenic atrophy and lung susceptibility to spontaneous bacterial infection in mice. Stroke 2013; 44:1135-43. [PMID: 23391769 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.111.000633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Statins are widely used in the primary and secondary prevention of ischemic stroke, but their effects on stroke-induced immunodepression and poststroke infections are elusive. We investigated the effects of simvastatin treatment on stroke-induced splenic atrophy and lung susceptibility to bacterial infection in acute experimental stroke in mice. METHODS Ischemic stroke was induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion, followed by reperfusion. In some experiments, splenectomies were performed 2 weeks before middle cerebral artery occlusion. Animals were randomly assigned to sham and middle cerebral artery occlusion groups treated subcutaneously with vehicle or simvastatin (20 mg/kg per day). Brain infarction, neurological function, brain interferon-γ expression, splenic atrophy and apoptosis, and lung infection were examined. RESULTS Simvastatin reduced stroke-induced spleen atrophy and splenic apoptosis via increased mitochrondrial antiapoptotic Bcl-2 expression and decreased proapoptotic Bax translocation from cytosol into mitochondria. Splenectomy reduced brain interferon-γ (3 days) and infarct size (5 days) after stroke, and these effects were reversed by adoptive transfer of splenocytes. Simvastatin inhibited brain interferon-γ (3 days) and reduced infarct volume and neurological deficits (5 days) after stroke, and these protective effects were observed not only in naive stroke mice but also in splenectomied stroke mice adoptively transferred with splenocytes. Simvastatin also decreased the stroke-associated lung susceptibility to spontaneous bacterial infection. CONCLUSIONS Results provide the first direct experimental evidence that simvastatin ameliorates stroke-induced peripheral immunodepression by attenuating spleen atrophy and lung bacterial infection. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the beneficial effects of statins in the treatment of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Jin
- Vascular Biology and Stroke Research Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA 71130, USA
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