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Xu Z, Wei D, Zhang H, Demongeot J. A Novel Mathematical Model That Predicts the Protection Time of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020586. [PMID: 36851801 PMCID: PMC9962246 DOI: 10.3390/v15020586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2 pose a considerable threat to public health. Constructing a reliable mathematical model helps us quantitatively explain the kinetic characteristics of antibody-virus interactions. A novel and robust model is developed to integrate antibody dynamics with virus dynamics based on a comprehensive understanding of immunology principles. This model explicitly formulizes the pernicious effect of the antibody, together with a positive feedback stimulation of the virus-antibody complex on the antibody regeneration. Besides providing quantitative insights into antibody and virus dynamics, it demonstrates good adaptivity in recapturing the virus-antibody interaction. It is proposed that the environmental antigenic substances help maintain the memory cell level and the corresponding neutralizing antibodies secreted by those memory cells. A broader application is also visualized in predicting the antibody protection time caused by a natural infection. Suitable binding antibodies and the presence of massive environmental antigenic substances would prolong the protection time against breakthrough infection. The model also displays excellent fitness and provides good explanations for antibody selection, antibody interference, and self-reinfection. It helps elucidate how our immune system efficiently develops neutralizing antibodies with good binding kinetics. It provides a reasonable explanation for the lower SARS-CoV-2 mortality in the population that was vaccinated with other vaccines. It is inferred that the best strategy for prolonging the vaccine protection time is not repeated inoculation but a directed induction of fast-binding antibodies. Eventually, this model will inform the future construction of an optimal mathematical model and help us fight against those infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaobin Xu
- Department of Life Science, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, China
- Correspondence: (Z.X.); (J.D.)
| | - Dongqing Wei
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Hongmei Zhang
- Department of Life Science, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, China
| | - Jacques Demongeot
- Laboratory AGEIS EA 7407, Team Tools for e-Gnosis Medical, Faculty of Medicine, University Grenoble Alpes (UGA), 38700 La Tronche, France
- Correspondence: (Z.X.); (J.D.)
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2
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Demongeot J, Fougère C. mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines-Facts and Hypotheses on Fragmentation and Encapsulation. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 11:40. [PMID: 36679885 PMCID: PMC9864138 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The adventure of the mRNA vaccine began thirty years ago in the context of influenza. This consisted in encapsulating the mRNA coding for a viral protein in a lipid particle. We show how the mRNA encoding S protein has been modified for that purpose in the context of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. RESULTS by using data coming from genetic and epidemiologic databases, we show the theoretical possibility of fragmentation of this mRNA into small RNA sequences capable of inhibiting important bio-syntheses such as the production of beta-globin. DISCUSSION we discuss two aspects related to mRNA vaccine: (i) the plausibility of mRNA fragmentation, and (ii) the role of liposomal nanoparticles (LNPs) used in the vaccine and their impact on mRNA biodistribution. CONCLUSION we insist on the need to develop lipid nanoparticles allowing personalized administration of vaccines and avoiding adverse effects due to mRNA fragmentation and inefficient biodistribution. Hence, we recommend (i) adapting the mRNA of vaccines to the least mutated virus proteins and (ii) personalizing its administration to the categories of chronic patients at risk most likely to suffer from adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Demongeot
- AGEIS & Telecom4Health, Faculty of Medicine, University Grenoble Alpes, 38700 La Tronche, France
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Clinton NA, Hameed SA, Agyei EK, Jacob JC, Oyebanji VO, Jabea CE. Crosstalk between the Intestinal Virome and Other Components of the Microbiota, and Its Effect on Intestinal Mucosal Response and Diseases. J Immunol Res 2022; 2022:7883945. [PMID: 36203793 PMCID: PMC9532165 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7883945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, there has been ample evidence illustrating the effect of microbiota on gut immunity, homeostasis, and disease. Most of these studies have engaged more efforts in understanding the role of the bacteriome in gut mucosal immunity and disease. However, studies on the virome and its influence on gut mucosal immunity and pathology are still at infancy owing to limited metagenomic tools. Nonetheless, the existing studies on the virome have largely been focused on the bacteriophages as these represent the main component of the virome with little information on endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) and eukaryotic viruses. In this review, we describe the gut virome, and its role in gut mucosal response and disease progression. We also explore the crosstalk between the virome and other microorganisms in the gut mucosa and elaborate on how these interactions shape the gut mucosal immunity going from bacteriophages through ERVs to eukaryotic viruses. Finally, we elucidate the potential contribution of this crosstalk in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases and colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Njinju Asaba Clinton
- Health and Empowerment Foundation, Cameroon
- Mbonge District Hospital, Cameroon
- University of Buea, Cameroon
| | | | - Eugene Kusi Agyei
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
| | | | | | - Cyril Ekabe Jabea
- Health and Empowerment Foundation, Cameroon
- Mbonge District Hospital, Cameroon
- University of Buea, Cameroon
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4
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Phan K, He Y, Fu Y, Dzamko N, Bhatia S, Gold J, Rowe D, Ke YD, Ittner LM, Hodges JR, Piguet O, Kiernan MC, Halliday GM, Kim WS. Pathological manifestation of human endogenous retrovirus K in frontotemporal dementia. COMMUNICATIONS MEDICINE 2021; 1:60. [PMID: 35083468 PMCID: PMC8788987 DOI: 10.1038/s43856-021-00060-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) is a common form of younger-onset dementia with a proportion of cases overlapping pathologically and genetically with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Previous studies have identified that the human endogenous retrovirus K (HERV-K) is elevated in ALS serum and is associated with ALS TDP-43 pathology. In contrast, little is known about HERV-K changes in bvFTD. Here, we investigated the possible role of HERV-K in bvFTD. METHODS We measured the HERV-K env gene in sporadic bvFTD (N = 63), sporadic ALS (N = 89), and control (N = 21) serum by ddPCR. We also analyzed HERV-K env, by qPCR, and the HERV-K reverse transcriptase protein, by confocal immunofluorescence microscopy, in the disease-affected superior frontal cortex of bvFTD with TDP-43 pathology. RESULTS Here, we show that HERV-K env levels are significantly elevated (P = 3.5 × 10-6) in bvFTD compared to control serum, differentiating cases with an AUC value of 0.867. HERV-K env levels are also specifically elevated in the superior frontal cortex of bvFTD with TDP-43 pathology, with the HERV-K reverse transcriptase protein and TDP-43 deposit localized to the neuronal cytoplasm. Furthermore, in a neuronal cell line overexpression of TDP-43 induces HERV-K env transcription. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that manifestation of HERV-K is associated with bvFTD TDP-43 pathology. Analysis of HERV-K in bvFTD may provide insight into an unrecognized but targetable perturbed pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Phan
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Ying He
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - YuHong Fu
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Nicolas Dzamko
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Surabhi Bhatia
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Julian Gold
- grid.452312.30000 0004 0644 0381The University of Sydney, The Albion Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Dominic Rowe
- grid.1004.50000 0001 2158 5405Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Yazi D. Ke
- grid.1004.50000 0001 2158 5405Dementia Research Centre and Department of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Lars M. Ittner
- grid.1004.50000 0001 2158 5405Dementia Research Centre and Department of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - John R. Hodges
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Olivier Piguet
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, School of Psychology, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Matthew C. Kiernan
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.413249.90000 0004 0385 0051Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Glenda M. Halliday
- grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW Australia ,grid.1013.30000 0004 1936 834XThe University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, NSW Australia
| | - Woojin Scott Kim
- The University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, NSW, Australia. .,The University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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5
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Srinivasachar Badarinarayan S, Sauter D. Switching Sides: How Endogenous Retroviruses Protect Us from Viral Infections. J Virol 2021; 95:e02299-20. [PMID: 33883223 PMCID: PMC8315955 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02299-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Long disregarded as junk DNA or genomic dark matter, endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) have turned out to represent important components of the antiviral immune response. These remnants of once-infectious retroviruses not only regulate cellular immune activation, but may even directly target invading viral pathogens. In this Gem, we summarize mechanisms by which retroviral fossils protect us from viral infections. One focus will be on recent advances in the role of ERVs as regulators of antiviral gene expression.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Endogenous Retroviruses/genetics
- Endogenous Retroviruses/physiology
- Enhancer Elements, Genetic
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- RNA, Double-Stranded/genetics
- RNA, Double-Stranded/metabolism
- RNA, Long Noncoding/genetics
- RNA, Long Noncoding/metabolism
- RNA, Viral/genetics
- RNA, Viral/metabolism
- Receptors, Pattern Recognition/metabolism
- Receptors, Virus/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Virus/metabolism
- Retroelements
- Viral Proteins/metabolism
- Virion/metabolism
- Virus Diseases/genetics
- Virus Diseases/immunology
- Virus Diseases/virology
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Affiliation(s)
- Smitha Srinivasachar Badarinarayan
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
- Institute for Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, University Hospital Tübingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Sauter
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
- Institute for Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, University Hospital Tübingen, Germany
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6
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Inhibition of HERV-K (HML-2) in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients on antiretroviral therapy. J Neurol Sci 2021; 423:117358. [PMID: 33653604 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2021.117358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Reactivation of Human Endogenous Retrovirus K (HERV-K), subtype HML-2, has been associated with pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We aimed to assess the efficacy of antiretroviral therapy in inhibiting HML-2 in patients with ALS and a possible association between the change in HML-2 levels and clinical outcomes. We studied the effect of 24-weeks antiretroviral combination therapy with abacavir, lamivudine, and dolutegravir on HML-2 levels in 29 ALS patients. HML-2 levels decreased progressively over 24 weeks (P = 0.001) and rebounded within a week of stopping medications (P = 0.02). The majority of participants (82%), defined as "responders", experienced a decrease in HML-2 at week 24 of treatment compared to the pre-treatment levels. Differences in the evolution of some of the clinical outcomes could be seen between responders and non-responders: FVC decreased 23.69% (SE = 11.34) in non-responders and 12.71% (SE = 8.28) in responders. NPI score decreased 91.95% (SE = 6.32) in non-responders and 53.05% (SE = 10.06) in responders (P = 0.01). Thus, participants with a virological response to treatment showed a trend for slower progression of the illness. These findings further support the possible involvement of HML-2 in the clinical course of the disease.
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Demongeot J, Seligmann H. SARS-CoV-2 and miRNA-like inhibition power. Med Hypotheses 2020; 144:110245. [PMID: 33254550 PMCID: PMC7471724 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: RNA viruses and especially coronaviruses could act inside host cells not only by building their own proteins, but also by perturbing the cell metabolism. We show the possibility of miRNA-like inhibitions by the SARS-CoV-2 concerning for example the hemoglobin and type I interferons syntheses, hence highly perturbing oxygen distribution in vital organs and immune response as described by clinicians; (2) Hypothesis: We hypothesize that short RNA sequences (about 20 nucleotides in length) from the SARS-CoV-2 virus genome can inhibit the translation of human proteins involved in oxygen metabolism, olfactory perception and immune system. (3) Methods: We compare RNA subsequences of SARS-CoV-2 protein S and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase genes to mRNA sequences of beta-globin and type I interferons; (4) Results: RNA subsequences longer than eight nucleotides from SARS-CoV-2 genome could hybridize subsequences of the mRNA of beta-globin and of type I interferons; (5) Conclusions: Beyond viral protein production, COVID-19 might affect vital processes like host oxygen transport and immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Demongeot
- Laboratory AGEIS EA 7407, Team Tools for e-Gnosis Medical & Labcom CNRS/UGA/OrangeLabs Telecom4Health, Faculty of Medicine, University Grenoble Alpes (UGA), 38700 La Tronche, France.
| | - Hervé Seligmann
- Laboratory AGEIS EA 7407, Team Tools for e-Gnosis Medical & Labcom CNRS/UGA/OrangeLabs Telecom4Health, Faculty of Medicine, University Grenoble Alpes (UGA), 38700 La Tronche, France; The National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91404 Jerusalem, Israel
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Gold J, Rowe DB, Kiernan MC, Vucic S, Mathers S, van Eijk RPA, Nath A, Garcia Montojo M, Norato G, Santamaria UA, Rogers ML, Malaspina A, Lombardi V, Mehta PR, Westeneng HJ, van den Berg LH, Al-Chalabi A. Safety and tolerability of Triumeq in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: the Lighthouse trial. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Frontotemporal Degener 2019; 20:595-604. [PMID: 31284774 DOI: 10.1080/21678421.2019.1632899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Background: Neuroinflammation and human endogenous retroviruses (HERV) are thought to have a role in the pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Therapy directed against endogenous retroviruses has demonstrated positive effects during in vitro and biomarker studies. Consequently, the present study was undertaken to assess the safety and tolerability of long-term antiretroviral therapy (ART), Triumeq (abacavir, lamivudine, and dolutegravir) exposure in patients with ALS, and efficacy against biomarkers of disease progression. Methods: Patients were observed during a 10-week lead-in period before receiving Triumeq treatment for 24 weeks at four specialist ALS centers. The primary outcomes were safety and tolerability. Secondary outcomes included HERV-K expression levels, urinary p75ECD levels, neurophysiological parameters, and clinical indicators. The ENCALS prediction model was applied to provide an estimate of the cohort survival. The trial was registered (NCT02868580). Findings: 40 patients with ALS received Triumeq and 35 (88%) completed treatment. There were no drug-related serious adverse events; one patient was withdrawn from the study due to a drug-associated increase in liver enzymes. A favorable response on HERV-K expression levels was observed, accompanied by a decline in ALSFRS-R progression rate of 21.8% (95% CI -4.8%-48.6%) and the amount of urinary p75ECD measured. One patient died five months after stopping treatment, while five were expected to have died during the treatment period (interquartile range 2-8). Interpretation: Long-term Triumeq exposure was safe and well tolerated in this cohort. There was suggestive indication for a possible biological response in some pharmacodynamic and clinical biomarkers. A larger international phase 3 trial will be deployed to assess the effect of Triumeq on overall survival and disease progression. Funding: Funding was provided by the FightMND Foundation; MND Research Institute of Australia; MND Association, United Kingdom, and GSK. ViiV Healthcare provided the Triumeq.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Gold
- Prince of Wales Hospital, The Albion Centre and Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney , Australia
- King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience , London , United Kingdom
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London , London , United Kingdom
| | - Dominic B Rowe
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University , Sydney , Australia
| | - Matthew C Kiernan
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney and Department of Neurology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital , Sydney , Australia
| | - Steve Vucic
- Department of Neurology, Westmead Hospital , Sydney , Australia
| | - Susan Mathers
- Department of Neurology, Calvary Health Care Bethlehem , Melbourne , Australia
| | - Ruben P A van Eijk
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Centre Utrecht , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | - Avindra Nath
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Section of Infections of the Nervous System , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Marta Garcia Montojo
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Section of Infections of the Nervous System , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Gina Norato
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Section of Infections of the Nervous System , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Ulisses A Santamaria
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Section of Infections of the Nervous System , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Mary-Louise Rogers
- Centre for Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
| | - Andrea Malaspina
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London , London , United Kingdom
| | - Vittoria Lombardi
- Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London , London , United Kingdom
| | - Puja R Mehta
- King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience , London , United Kingdom
| | - Henk-Jan Westeneng
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Centre Utrecht , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | | | - Ammar Al-Chalabi
- King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience , London , United Kingdom
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Garcia-Montojo M, Doucet-O'Hare T, Henderson L, Nath A. Human endogenous retrovirus-K (HML-2): a comprehensive review. Crit Rev Microbiol 2018; 44:715-738. [PMID: 30318978 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2018.1501345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The human genome contains a large number of retroviral elements acquired over the process of evolution, some of which are specific to primates. However, as many of these are defective or silenced through epigenetic changes, they were historically considered "junk DNA" and their potential role in human physiology or pathological circumstances have been poorly studied. The most recently acquired, human endogenous retrovirus-K (HERV-K), has multiple copies in the human genome and some of them have complete open reading frames that are transcribed and translated, especially in early embryogenesis. Phylogenetically, HERV-K is considered a supergroup of viruses. One of the subtypes, termed HML-2, seems to be the most active and hence, it is the best studied. Aberrant expression of HML-2 in adult tissues has been associated with certain types of cancer and with neurodegenerative diseases. This review discusses the discovery of these viruses, their classification, structure, regulation and potential for replication, physiological roles, and their involvement in disease pathogenesis. Finally, it presents different therapeutic approaches being considered to target these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Garcia-Montojo
- a Section of Infections of the Nervous System , National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Tara Doucet-O'Hare
- a Section of Infections of the Nervous System , National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Lisa Henderson
- a Section of Infections of the Nervous System , National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Avindra Nath
- a Section of Infections of the Nervous System , National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda , MD , USA
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