Endovascular management of pelvic congestion syndrome: An expert consensus statement from the French Society of Cardiovascular Imaging (SFICV), Interventional Radiology Federation (FRI), College of French Radiology Teachers (CERF), and French Society of Women's Imaging (SIFEM)

PURPOSE

Pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS) is a major cause of chronic pelvic pain in women of reproductive age. It is often associated with pelvic venous insufficiency and venous dilatation of the ovarian and uterine veins, resulting in a variety of symptoms exacerbated by venous hypertension. Despite its prevalence, PCS lacks standardized diagnostic and management protocols, making effective treatment challenging. The purpose of this expert consensus statement was to summarize the opinions of French radiologists and gynecologists regarding the diagnosis, imaging, treatment, and management of PCS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A working group of 14 expert radiologists and gynecologists from various French medical centers used a Delphi panel approach with several rounds of remote and face-to-face meetings to formulate and refine expert opinions based on the current literature and clinical expertise. These opinions were categorized according to diagnostic criteria, imaging techniques, therapeutic options, and follow-up protocols.

RESULTS

The group formulated 72 initial opinions, and 65 were retained after rigorous evaluation for consensus. Key diagnostic tools include Doppler ultrasound for detection of venous reflux and magnetic resonance imaging for detailed assessment of venous anatomy. Endovascular embolization was highlighted as the primary treatment approach and recommended after thorough imaging evaluation. Noninvasive treatments and multidisciplinary care were also emphasized for comprehensive management. The expert opinion also included post-treatment follow-up to assess quality of life and symptom resolution.

CONCLUSION

This structured consensus approach helped develop standardized expert opinions on management of, providing clear guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up. These guidelines should improve clinical practice and patient care in the management of PCS.

Ultrasound characteristics and risk factors of female patients with pelvic varicose veins and concomitant chronic pelvic pain

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to elucidate clinical and ultrasonographic characteristics of female patients diagnosed with pelvic varicose veins (PVVs) and to assess potential risk factors associated with incidences of chronic pelvic pain (CPP) in this population.

METHODS

Clinical and ultrasound data were retrospectively collected from female patients with PVVs at Beijing Shijitan Hospital between December 2017 and October 2022. Patient cohorts were divided into two groups based on whether they had been experiencing non-periodic pelvic pain over 6 months, consistent with the symptoms of CPP. Comparative analyses were conducted between the two groups, utilizing both univariate and multivariate logistic regression methodologies to identify risk factors for CPP.

RESULTS

The study included a total of 236 patients: 89 patients in the CPP group and 147 patients in the non-CPP group. No statistically significant differences were found between the two groups with regard to demographic parameters including age, height, weight, age of menarche, and number of pregnancies and births. However, the CPP group showed a higher menstrual volume score and a greater incidence of varicose veins, coupled with a lower body mass index. Transabdominal ultrasonography revealed that patients with CPP had a significantly larger diameter in the left ovarian vein (LOV) (6.2 ± 1.9 mm vs 5.0 ±2.3 mm; P < .05), and a higher prevalence of left internal iliac vein incompetence (21.3% vs 8.8%). Moreover, positive rates for LOV incompetence were markedly higher (94.4% vs 23.1%; P < .05), even in the absence of left common iliac vein compression and nutcracker phenomenon. Multivariate logistic regression analysis discerned that the LOV reflux (odds ratio [OR], 9.102; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.578-18.099; P < .05), lower body mass index (OR, 0.646; 95% CI, 0.502-0.83; P < .05), elevated menstrual bleeding (OR, 1.182; 95% CI, 1.131-1.234; P < .05), and concomitant varicose veins (OR, 3.140; 95% CI, 1.067-9.273; P < .05) are independent risk factors for the manifestations of CPP in our patient cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Ultrasonography serves as an efficacious modality for evaluating abdomino-pelvic vascular pathology in patients with PVVs. Notably, LOV and internal iliac vein incompetence emerge as independent risk factors for CPP, thus offering a pivotal point of reference for clinical diagnosis and therapeutic management of PVVs.

Pelvic Venous Disorders are Associated with an Earlier Age-of-Onset in Females with Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS

Pelvic venous disorders (PVDs) are a group of inter-related pathological diagnoses that can present with a range of symptoms including pelvic and urinary symptoms similar to those seen in interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS). The relationship between PVDs and IC/BPS in humans has yet to be evaluated. This study's objectives are to determine the prevalence of PVD in patients with IC/BPS and to identify associated characteristics.

METHODS

Charts from our study on patients with IC/BPS undergoing hydrodistension (HOD) were screened for those with an MRI or CT scan of the abdomen/pelvis. Imaging findings suggestive of PVD were noted. Information regarding anesthetic bladder capacity (BC), Hunner lesion (HL) status, results for validated IC/BPS symptoms, and patient reports of comorbid non-urological associated syndromes (NUAS) known to co-occur with IC/BPS were collected.

RESULTS

A total of 133 patients with IC/BPS had the appropriate studies for a diagnosis of PVD, of which 64 (48.1%) were positive. PVD-positive patients were younger at IC/BPS diagnosis (35.36 ± 12.47 vs 42.32 ± 14.53; p = 0.004), younger at most recent HOD (45.59 ± 13.18 vs 53.32 ± 13.71; p = 0.001), and had a lower BMI (27.88 ± 7.35 vs 32.18 ± 9.29; p = 0.004). No significant differences were noted in age at earliest HOD, smoking status, average BC, HL status, total number of HOD, total NUAS, or any of multiple reported comorbidities. Additionally, none of the average IC/BPS symptom scores were significantly different.

CONCLUSIONS

Imaging findings suggestive of PVD are common in patients with IC/BPS and may be associated with an earlier onset of disease.

The impact of stent protrusion into the inferior vena cava or jailing of the contralateral iliac vein on the incidence of contralateral deep vein thrombosis following venous stenting

OBJECTIVE

Iliac vein stenting is the standard of care for patients with pelvic venous disorders secondary to symptomatic iliac vein outflow obstruction. Venous stents are often extended proximally into the inferior vena cava (IVC) which may result in partial or complete coverage of the contralateral iliac vein. The purpose of this investigation is to determine if extension of iliac vein stents into the IVC results in increased risk of contralateral deep venous thrombosis (DVT).

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed prospectively collected data from 409 patients who underwent iliac vein stenting at the Center for Vascular Medicine (CVM) from 2019 to 2020. Stent type, covered territories, initial and follow-up consults, ultrasound and operative reports were reviewed to assess for incidence of post-implantation DVT. Patients were stratified into three groups: Iliac vein stents which protruded into the IVC, stents that completely covered the orifice of the contralateral iliac vein and those with no stent protrusion into the IVC.

RESULTS

Out of 409 patients, the average age was 53.96 ± 13.40 years with 94 males and 315 females. All stents placed were Venovo stents and all iliac vein lesions were non-thrombotic stenoses. The average follow-up period was 14.35 ± 10.09 months. The most common territories stented were the IVC-LCIV-LEIV (n = , 74%) and the IVC-RCIV-REIV (n = , 26%). Stent protrusion and distance into the IVC in millimeters (mm) was the following: Partial protrusion (n = 314, 77%, 27.6 ± 19.1), jailing of the contralateral iliac vein (n = 78, 19%, 45.9 ± 18.6), no protrusion (n = 16, 4%). The overall DVT rate post-implantation was 0.49% (n = 2). No DVTs ipsilateral to the index stent were identified and both DVTs were contralateral DVTs. A hypercoaguable disorder was reported in 6 patients (1.5%). There were no significant differences in prevalence of contralateral DVT between the three groups. (p = .35).

CONCLUSION

The rate of contralateral DVTs post iliac vein stenting with Nitonol based stents is extremely low. Partial or complete coverage of the contralateral iliac vein via stenting does not result in an increased incidence of contralateral DVT in the short-term. Longer follow up is needed to determine if contralateral DVTs occur after long-term implantation.

Long-term follow-up for the treatment of symptomatic pelvic venous insufficiency secondary to combined iliac vein stenosis and ovarian vein reflux treated with iliac vein stenting alone

BACKGROUND

We previously reported that in women with symptomatic pelvic venous insufficiency secondary to combined iliac vein stenosis (IVS) and ovarian vein reflux (OVR), treated with iliac vein stenting alone that 78% reported complete symptom resolution up to 6 months. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the long-term effectiveness of this treatment strategy, the poststent reintervention rate and the incidence of poststent ovarian vein embolization (OVE) for residual symptoms.

METHODS

A retrospective review of prospectively collected data at the Center for Vascular Medicine was performed. We investigated women with pelvic pain or dyspareunia secondary to combined IVS and OVR who were treated with stenting alone. Patients whose primary complaint was dysmenorrhea and/or leg symptoms were excluded from the analysis. Assessments and interventions consisted of an evaluation for other causes of pelvic venous disorder by a gynecologist, documentation of preintervention and 3-, 6-, 12-, 24-, and 36-month visual analog scale pain scores; transabdominal duplex ultrasound examination; stent type, diameter, and length; vein territory covered; and reintervention rates. All patients underwent diagnostic venography of their pelvic, left ovarian veins, and pelvic reservoirs, and intravascular ultrasound examination of their iliac veins.

RESULTS

From February 2018 to January 2023, 141 women with a pelvic venous disorder secondary to IVS and OVR were identified. The average age was 44.7 ± 10.5 years with 3.18 ± 1.82 pregnancies. The average follow-up time for the entire cohort was 12.0 ± 12.1 months (median, 10.65 months). Types of stents were Venovo 48 (34%), Wallstent 14 (10%), and Abre 79 (56%). The most common diameter and stent lengths used were 14 and 16 mm and 140 and 150 mm, respectively. The most common vein territories covered were the inferior vena cava to the left external iliac vein in 83% and inferior vena cava to right external iliac vein in 13%. Pelvic and dyspareunia VAS scores before the intervention and at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36 months after the intervention were as follows: 6.4 ± 73 (n = 141), 2.6 ± 3.3 (n = 98), 1.71 ± 2.83 (n = 77), 2.04 ± 3.5 (n = 76), 2.4 ± 3.7 (n = 30), and 1.15 ± 3 (n = 13) (P ≤ .001). Of the entire cohort no patients required OVE and pelvic reservoir embolization. Pelvic reservoirs were present in 113 of 141 patients (83%). Stent reinterventions were required in 19 of 141 patients (13%).

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of women with pelvic pain secondary to combined IVS and OVR achieved near complete symptom resolution with iliac vein stenting alone, despite the presence of a pelvic reservoir in 83% of patients. Although most women complained of some minimal residual pelvic pain or dyspareunia, the majority were satisfied with their outcomes and did not require further intervention. In this patient population, iliac vein stenting should be considered the primary treatment modality. OVE should be reserved for patients with persistent or recurrent pelvic pain unresolved with stenting.

Noninvasive diagnostic imaging of pelvic venous disorders

It is estimated that chronic pelvic pain (CPP) may affect up to 24% of women. Unfortunately, very often, despite extensive diagnostics, the cause of CPP remains unknown. The pathophysiology of CPP could be explained to a large extent by the occurrence of pelvic venous disorders (PVD). Although pelvic venography is still considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of PVD, noninvasive diagnostic imaging techniques seem to be instrumental in the initial identification of patients with PVD. This literature review aimed to analyze and evaluate the usefulness of noninvasive diagnostic imaging techniques like transvaginal ultrasonography, transabdominal ultrasonography, magnetic resonance, and computed tomography in the diagnosis and identification of patients with PVD. Forty-one articles published between 1984 and 2023 were included in this literature review. Based on this literature review, we conclude that the clinical application of noninvasive diagnostic techniques in the diagnosis of PVD seems to be very promising. Future studies investigating the role of noninvasive diagnostic imaging techniques in the diagnosis of PVD are required.

Application of the Symptoms-Varices-Pathophysiology classification system in patients with pelvic venous disorders

Introduction: In 2021, the American Vein and Lymphatic Society convened a multi-disciplinary group to develop a valid and reliable discriminative instrument for the classification of patients suffering from pelvic venous disorders (PeVD) referred to as the Symptoms-Varices-Pathophysiology (SVP) system. Limited data exists regarding the utility of this instrument in the care of patients with PeVD. The goal of this investigation is to apply the SVP classification system to a group of patients treated for PeVDs. Methods: From January 2018 to January 2019, we retrospectively reviewed the records of 70 female patients treated for a PeVD at the Center for Vascular Medicine. Age, race, gender, medical/surgical histories, CEAP classification and intervention types were assessed and patients were categorized according to their SVP classification. The prevalence of each S and V class, their association with gonadal or iliac vein obstructive lesions and the prevalence of lower extremity varicosities was evaluated. Results: The average age of the entire cohort was 47.4 ± 13.4. The race distribution was as follows: African American (6), Hispanic (1), and Caucasian (63). Of the 140 limbs, 57% were C3 or greater with an average rVCSS score of 4.53. At the time of intervention, 54 patients (77%) demonstrated CEAP class 2 disease or greater with 25 patients (35%) demonstrating lower extremity varicosities. Medical co-morbidities included the following: Endometriosis (n = 1), Uterine Fibroids (n = 1), Ovarian cysts (n = 4), history of venous thrombosis (n = 2) and prior lower extremity venous procedures (n = 3). Overall, 47 patients (67.1%) demonstrated S2 disease secondary to dyspareunia, post-coital pain, or dysmenorrhea. S2 alone was observed in 17 patients (24.3%), S2,3a and S2,3a,3b in nine patients each (12.9%), and S2,3b was in 12 patients (17.1%). Thirteen patients presented with isolated extra-pelvic symptoms (19%); four (5.7%) were classified as S3a,3b, and nine (12.9%) were classified as S3b only. Finally, 10 patients (14%) had no pelvic symptoms and thus were classified as S0. V0 disease was observed in 17 patients (24.3%) secondary to a high incidence of iliac vein stenoses (IVS). V1 disease was observed in 1 patient (1.43%). V2 disease was observed in 53 patients (74.3%) secondary to iliac or ovarian vein reflux. Of these, 45 patients (64.3%) presented with reflux in the iliac veins. Sixteen patients had reflux in the common iliac veins, 17 patients exhibited reflux of the external iliac veins, and 41 patients demonstrated reflux of the internal iliac veins. Thirty-two patients (45.7%) presented with V2 disease secondary to reflux of the ovarian veins, 8 of whom presented with isolated ovarian vein reflux without IVS. Bilateral ovarian vein reflux was observed in 6 patients (9%) and unilaterally in 26 (37%) patients with concomitant ovarian vein reflux and IVS observed in 31 patients (44%). In patients with ovarian vein reflux, 89% had a concomitant iliac vein stenosis: (96.9% in the common iliac vein, 81.3% in the external iliac vein and 3.1% in the internal iliac vein). Conclusion: In our patient cohort, 70 women demonstrated 14 different SV classifications. The most common was S2V2, found in 10 patients. Chronic pelvic pain of venous origin, S2 disease, was the most common symptom, present in 47 patients (67.1%); followed by extra-pelvic symptoms as 22 patients demonstrated symptoms of the external genitalia (S3a), and 21 patients had symptoms secondary to the non-saphenous leg veins (S3b). Pelvic varicosities, V2, were also the most common variceal pattern seen in 53 patients, and 17 patients did not have any varices noted by venogram. Non-thrombotic IVS either alone or with ovarian vein reflux was the most common cause of PeVD in this cohort and may reflect referral patterns to our center. To determine the true incidence of these SVP patterns, larger cohort studies are necessary.

Application of Differential Subsampling with Cartesian Ordering in Evaluating Left Ovarian Venous Reflux for Pretreatment Planning for Pelvic Venous Disorders

The diagnosis of a common cause of chronic pelvic pain can be made by visualizing reflux in the ovarian veins. Fluoroscopic venography is the gold standard for diagnosing ovarian vein reflux, but it is an invasive technique that exposes patients to ionizing radiation. MRI, with its lack of ionizing radiation and capability of high-temporal and spatial-resolution vascular imaging, has the potential to provide similar diagnostic information. This retrospective report describes and assesses the utility of a dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI technique based on Differential Subsampling with Cartesian Ordering (DISCO)-MRI in 30 patients with chronic pelvic pain. Among the 14 patients who underwent both DISCO-MRI and fluoroscopic venograms, 11 (78.6%) exhibited concordant results, while 3 patients (21.4%) had discordant findings. These results suggest the potential of multiphasic contrast-enhanced DISCO-MRI as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for evaluating chronic pelvic pain.

Diagnosis and Management of Pelvic Congestion Syndrome: Comprehensive Review

BACKGROUND

Pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS) is a poorly understood condition that can be associated with chronic pelvic pain and could impact quality of life. The diagnosis is often made by exclusion of other causes of pelvic pain.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of our review was to provide an update on the etiology, anatomy, physiology, identification, and the therapeutic management of PCS.

METHOD

We conducted a literature review involving publications from 2003 to 2024 in PubMed, Elsevier, MEDLINE, as well as manual searches of primary and review articles using keywords such as "pelvic veins", "embolization", "venography", "pelvic congestion syndrome", and "chronic pelvic pain".

CONCLUSION

PCS remains poorly understood. Symptoms can be non-specific and difficult to distinguish from other diseases; yet it is an important cause of chronic pelvic pain in women. To date, there have been only a small number of randomized trials and high-level evidence is still lacking.

OUTLOOK

We call for an increased awareness of PCS and additional clinical studies in a large number of patients.

Improvement in chronic pelvic pain, orthostatic intolerance and interstitial cystitis symptoms after treatment of pelvic vein insufficiency

OBJECTIVES

Comorbidities associated with venous origin chronic pelvic pain (VO-CPP) were evaluated pre and post venous treatment to assess change.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

45 women with VO-CPP were treated with venous stenting and/or embolization. Four surveys assessed symptoms pre- and post-treatment: IPPS (chronic pelvic pain), PUF (interstitial cystitis), OHQ (dysautonomia), and modified ROME III (IBS). Prevalence of joint hypermobility was investigated.

RESULTS

Ages were 18-65. Pretreatment, 64% and 49% of women were in the severe range for PUF and OHQ, respectively. 40% and 56% met criteria for IBS and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome/Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder (EDS/HSD), respectively. 17eceived an iliac stent, 5 pelvic embolization, and 23 both. Post-treatment, average scores improved: IPPS (by 55%), PUF (34%), and OHQ (49%). Rome III improved only slightly.

CONCLUSION

Pelvic pain, interstitial cystitis, and dysautonomia were frequently found with VO-CPP and improved after venous treatment. EDS/HSD and IBS were common in these women.

Chronic Pelvic Pain: Role of Imaging in the Diagnosis and Management

Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) in women is not uncommon, and it may be difficult to identify the exact cause difficult to manage. It is major health problem for women that affects the quality of their daily lives. The etiology of chronic pelvic pain may be of gynecological or non-gynecological origin and associated with several predisposing and precipitating factors. Psychological and social factors also contribute to the syndrome of CPP and must be evaluated before managing these patients. Due to multifactorial etiology, CPP needs a multidisciplinary approach for diagnosis and management. A detailed history and physical examination supported by appropriate laboratory tests and imaging are the keys to diagnosis. In this paper, the role of imaging in diagnosis and management of CPP is reviewed. Imaging findings should be correlated with detailed clinical examination findings as there are imaging findings that may be unrelated and not the cause of CPP in a particular patient, imaging findings should be correlated with the clinical circumstances.

ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Lower Extremity Chronic Venous Disease

Lower extremity venous insufficiency is a chronic medical condition resulting from primary valvular incompetence or, less commonly, prior deep venous thrombosis or extrinsic venous obstruction. Lower extremity chronic venous disease has a high prevalence with a related socioeconomic burden. In the United States, over 11 million males and 22 million females 40 to 80 years of age have varicose veins, with over 2 million adults having advanced chronic venous disease. The high cost to the health care system is related to the recurrent nature of venous ulcerative disease, with total treatment costs estimated >$2.5 billion per year in the United States, with at least 20,556 individuals with newly diagnosed venous ulcers yearly. Various diagnostic and treatment strategies are in place for lower extremity chronic venous disease and are discussed in this document. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of well-established methodologies (RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where evidence is lacking or equivocal, expert opinion may supplement the available evidence to recommend imaging or treatment.

Diagnosis and Management of Pelvic Venous Disorders: AJR Expert Panel Narrative Review

Pelvic venous disorders (PeVD), previously known by various imprecise terms including pelvic congestion syndrome, have historically been underdiagnosed as a cause of chronic pelvic pain (CPP), a significant health problem associated with reduced quality of life. However, progress in the field has helped to provide heightened clarity with respect to definitions relating to PeVD, and evolution in algorithms for PeVD workup and treatment has been accompanied by new insights into the causes of a pelvic venous reservoir and associated symptoms. Ovarian and pelvic vein embolization, as well as endovascular stenting of common iliac vein compression, should be considered as management options for PeVD. Both treatments have been shown to be safe and effective for patients with CPP of venous origin, regardless of age. Current therapeutic protocols for PeVD exhibit significant heterogeneity owing to limited prospective randomized data and evolving understanding of the factors driving successful outcomes; forthcoming clinical trials are anticipated to improve understanding of CPP of venous origin as well as algorithms for PeVD management. This Expert Panel Narrative Review provides a contemporary update relating to PeVD, summarizing the entity's current classification, diagnostic workup, endovascular treatments, management of persistent or recurrent symptoms, and future research directions.

Body and Extremity MR Venography: Technique, Clinical Applications, and Advances

Magnetic resonance venography (MRV) represents a distinct imaging approach that may be used to evaluate a wide spectrum of venous pathology. Despite duplex ultrasound and computed tomography venography representing the dominant imaging modalities in investigating suspected venous disease, MRV is increasingly used due to its lack of ionizing radiation, unique ability to be performed without administration of intravenous contrast, and recent technical improvements resulting in improved sensitivity, image quality, and faster acquisition times. In this review, the authors discuss commonly used body and extremity MRV techniques, different clinical applications, and future directions.

Nitinol stents placed in iliac veins are not associated with prolonged back pain

INTRODUCTION

Endovascular stenting is the standard of care for the management of symptomatic chronic venous obstruction. The increased radial resistive force and longer lengths of Nitinol stents have led to questions over persistent post-operative back pain. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the incidence and severity of post-operative back pain of Nitinol stents compared to Wallstents.

METHODS

A retrospective review of data at the Center for Vascular Medicine was performed. Patient demographics, pre-operative, one week, three-, six,- and 12 month visual analog pain scores (VAS) for back pain, stent type, diameter, length, and vein locations were assessed.

RESULTS

From April 2014 to November 2021, 627 (412 women/215 men) patients were assessed for the presence of post-operative back pain after an initial iliac vein stent placement. Stents utilized were Wallstents (n = 114), Venovo (n = 342), and Abre (n = 171). The most common Nitinol stent diameter and lengths were 14 mm, 16 mm, and 120 mm, respectively (p ≤ .03). The incidence of back pain at one week was 66% (411/627). VAS scores at one week and one, three, and six months post-operatively were the following: Wallstents-2.6 ± 3 (n = 66), 1.7 ± 2.6 (n = 43) 0.7 ± 2 (n = 51), and 0 ± 0 (n = 27); Abre-3.5 ± 3 (n = 130), 3.8 ± 3 (n = 19), 1.2 ± 2.5 (n = 12), and 1 ± 2 (n = 5); and Venovo- 2.5 ± 3 (n = 216), 2.4 ± 3 (n = 70), 0.9 ± 2 (n = 68), and 0.6 ± 1.7 (n = 49). There was no difference in the severity of back pain at any time point (p ≥ .99). The development of back pain was unrelated to stent type, diameter, length, or covered vein territory.

CONCLUSIONS

Post-operative back pain was observed in 66% of patients at one week. The average pain score at one week for the entire cohort was three, which declined to less than one at one month. No difference in the severity of back pain between groups was observed at any time point, and the development of back pain is unrelated to stent type, diameter, length, or covered vein territory.

Insights into pelvic venous disorders

Pelvic venous disorders (PeVD), sometimes referred to as pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS), widely impact affected patients-mainly young women's quality of life, causing puzzling, uncomfortable symptoms sometimes requiring months or years to get an explanation, while simply remaining undiagnosed in other cases. Because pelvic pain is a non-specific symptom, an appropriate diagnosis requires a careful patient workup, including a correlation between history and non-invasive imaging. Invasive imaging is frequently required to confirm the diagnosis and plan treatment. Current therapeutic approaches principally rely on minimally invasive techniques delivered through endovascular access. However, while comprehensive descriptive classifications such as the symptoms-varices-pathophysiology (SVP) classification exist, universally accepted guidelines regarding therapy to apply for each SVP category are still lacking. This review strongly focuses on PeVD imaging and discusses available therapeutic approaches with regard to pathophysiological mechanisms. It proposes a new classification scheme assisting clinical decision-making about endovascular management to help standardize the link between imaging findings and treatment.

Comprehensive overview of the venous disorder known as pelvic congestion syndrome

Pelvic venous disorders (PeVD) also known as Pelvic Congestion Syndrome (PCS) affect a great number of women worldwide and often remain undiagnosed. Gynecological symptoms caused by vascular background demand a holistic approach for appropriate diagnosis. This is a relevant cause of chronic pelvic pain and atypical varicose veins. The diagnosis is based on imaging studies and their correlation with clinical presentation. Although the aetiology of PCS still remains unclear, it may result from a combination of factors including genetic predisposition, anatomical abnormalities, hormonal factors, damage to the vein wall, valve dysfunction, reverse blood flow, hypertension and dilatation. The following paper describes an in-depth overview of anatomy, pathophysiology, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of PCS. In recent years, minimally invasive interventions have become the method of first choice for the treatment of this condition. The efficacy of a percutaneous approach is high and it is rarely associated with serious complications.Key MessagesPelvic venous disorders demand a holistic approach for appropriate diagnosis.This article takes an in-depth look at existing therapies of Pelvic Congestion Syndrome and pathophysiology of this condition.Embolisation is an effective and safe treatment option.

Acute pelvic pain: A pictorial review with magnetic resonance imaging

Acute uterine emergencies constitute both obstetric and gynecologic conditions. The superior image resolution, superior soft-tissue characterization, and lack of ionizing radiation make magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) preferable over ultrasonography (USG) and computed tomography (CT) in investigating uterine emergencies. Although USG is the first-line imaging modality and is easily accessible, it has limitations. USG is an operator dependent and limited by patient factors such as obesity and muscle atrophy. CT is limited by its risk of teratogenicity in pregnant females, poor tissue differentiation, and radiation effect. The non-specific findings on CT may lead to misinterpretation of the pathology. MRI overcomes all these limitations and is emerging as the most crucial imaging modality in the emergency room (ER). The evolving 3D MR sequences further reduce the acquisition times, expanding its ER role. Although MRI is not the first-line imaging modality, it is a problem-solving tool when the ultrasound and CT are inconclusive. This pictorial review discusses the various MRI techniques used in uterine imaging and the appearances of distinct etiologies of uterine emergencies across different MRI sequences.

Painful Ejaculation In A Patient With Pelvic Venous Insufficiency

Pelvic venous insufficiency (PVI) is common in women but has been rarely diagnosed in men. The clinical manifestations include varicocele and pelvic disturbances; however, we were unable to find a previous description of painful ejaculation as a symptom of PVI. We present the case of a 36-year-old man with a 7-year history of severe sharp ejaculatory pain. PVI was suspected after previous treatment attempts. The diagnosis was confirmed by descending phlebography, and he underwent coil embolization of the pelvic vessels and phlebotonic therapy. At 6 months after treatment, he reported a 75% improvement in his condition. Therefore, painful ejaculation should be considered an uncommon manifestation of PVI.

Venous Anatomy and Collateral Pathways of the Pelvis: An Angiographic Review

The pelvic venous system is complex, with the potential for numerous pathways of collateralization. Owing to stenosis or occlusion, both thrombotic and nonthrombotic entities in the pelvis may necessitate alternate routes of venous return. Although the pelvic venous anatomy and collateral pathways may demonstrate structural variability, a number of predictable paths often can be demonstrated on the basis of the given disease and the level of obstruction. Several general categories of collateral pathways have been described. These pathway categories include the deep pathway, which is composed of the lumbar and sacral veins and vertebral venous plexuses; the superficial pathway, which is composed of the circumflex and epigastric vessels; various iliofemoral collateral pathways; the intermediate pathway, which is composed of the gonadal veins and the ovarian and uterine plexuses; and portosystemic pathways. The pelvic venous anatomy has been described in detail in cadaveric and anatomic studies, with the aforementioned collateral pathways depicted on CT and MR images in several imaging studies. A comprehensive review of the native pelvic venous anatomy and collateralized pelvic venous anatomy based on angiographic features has yet to be provided. Knowledge of the diseases involving a number of specific pelvic veins is of clinical importance to interventional and diagnostic radiologists and surgeons. The ability to accurately identify common collateral patterns by using multiple imaging modalities, with accurate anatomic descriptions, may assist in delineating underlying obstructive hemodynamics and diagnosing specific occlusive disease entities. ^©RSNA, 2022.

The Clinical Problem of Pelvic Venous Disorders

Pelvic venous disorders are inter-related pathologic conditions caused by reflux and obstruction in the pelvic veins. It can present a spectrum of clinical features based on the route of transmission of venous hypertension to either distal or caudal venous reservoirs. Imaging can help to visualize pelvic vascular and visceral structures to rule out other gynecologic, gastrointestinal, and urologic diseases. Endovascular treatment, owing to its low invasive nature and high success rate, has become the mainstay in the management of pelvic venous disorders. This article reviews the pathophysiology, clinical presentations, and diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to pelvic venous disorders.

Identification of Pelvic Congestion Syndrome Using Transvaginal Ultrasonography. A Useful Tool

The gold standard for the diagnosis of pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS) is venography (VG), although transvaginal ultrasound (TVU) might be a noninvasive, nonionizing alternative. Our aim is to determine whether TVU is an accurate and comparable diagnostic tool for PCS. An observational prospective study including 67 patients was carried out. A TVU was performed on patients, measuring pelvic venous vessels parameters. Subsequentially, a VG was performed, and results were compared for the test calibration of TVU. Out of the 67 patients included, only 51 completed the study and were distributed in two groups according to VG results: 39 patients belonging to the PCS group and 12 to the normal group. PCS patients had a larger venous plexus diameter (15.1 mm vs. 12 mm; p = 0.009) and higher rates of crossing veins in the myometrium (74.35% vs. 33.3%; p = 0.009), reverse or altered flow during Valsalva (58.9% vs. 25%; p = 0.04), and largest pelvic vein ≥ 8 mm (92.3% vs. 25%). The sensitivity and specificity of TVU were 92.3% (95% CI: 78.03–97.99%) and 75% (95% CI: 42.84–93.31%), respectively. In conclusion, transvaginal ultrasonography, with the described methodology, appears to be a promising tool for the diagnosis of PCS, with acceptable sensitivity and specificity.

Predicting pelvic congestion syndrome: Concomitant pelvic pain diagnoses do not affect venography or embolization outcomes

Objectives

Pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS) is a challenging diagnosis to make secondary to nonspecific presenting symptoms and imaging findings. This retrospective review aims to discern predictive factors which can guide the decision to perform catheter-based venography and prognosticate outcomes.

Material and Methods

A retrospective analysis of patients who underwent catheter venography for PCS between January 2014 and December 2019 was performed. Multiple factors, including patient demographics, clinical history, pre-procedural imaging, venographic findings, and treatment outcomes 180 days post-procedure, were included in the analysis. Venographic findings were used to separate patients into two groups (positive or negative), with these factors compared across groups. Regression analysis controlled for the confounding effects of age and body mass index (BMI). Treated subjects were separated based on outcome (partial, no response, complete response, or technical failure), and comparisons were performed.

Results

Eighty patients were included in the initial analysis. Two patients were excluded due to prior embolization or portal hypertension. Seventy-eight patients were included in the final analysis. Sixty-two patients had positive findings, and 16 had no venographic findings to suggest PCS. A history of prior pregnancy was a significant predictor of positive venographic results (odds ratio = 5.99, P = 0.007). BMI was significantly lower in those with positive venographic results (P = 0.047). Presence of concomitant diagnoses did not affect venographic findings or treatment outcomes. No factors predicted treatment outcomes. Five of the treated patients had subsequent successful pregnancies.

Conclusion

A lower BMI supports the decision to perform venography for suspected PCS. In addition, patients who carried concomitant potentially confounding diagnoses for chronic pelvic pain were found to have similar rates of venographic findings suggesting PCS, as well as similar treatment outcomes.

Is the Prevalence of Estimated Pelvic Congestion Higher Than Examined? A Retrospective Study of Consecutive Abdominopelvic Computed Tomography Analyses

BACKGROUND

Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) is a common complaint in women, and is the key factor in the diagnosis of pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS).

INTRODUCTION

Consecutive abdominal and pelvic computed tomography (CT) scans in adult female patients not diagnosed with PCS and collected over a period of 3 years were evaluated retrospectively to determine the prevalence of underestimated pelvic congestion (PC).

METHODS

500 consecutive abdominal and pelvic CT scans collected from female patients aged 18-80 years were retrospectively analyzed for the presence of PC.

RESULTS

90 of the CT scans examined showed the presence of PC (18 %). These patients were divided into two groups: Group I had 52 scans with unilateral PC, while Group II had 38 scans with the bilateral enlarged ovarian vein (OV). Left and right OV diameters were measured as 7.14±2.15 and 5.56±1.87 mm, respectively. Co-occurrence of additional vascular anomalies, such as nutcracker-type compression of the left renal vein, and May Thurner, was significantly higher in Group I than Group II (p<0.001). The diameter of the OV remained wide irrespective of age in Group I, but showed a decrease with increasing age in Group II. The most common complaint was abdominal pain; these patients required an average of six referrals to two different clinics (primarily general surgery and internal medicine) before being diagnosed with PC.

CONCLUSION

The diagnosis of PCS remains to be an important problem for patients because of insufficient perception of physicians. PCS should be considered in female patients with complaints of chronic abdominal and pelvic pain and CT may be a valuable examination tool for diagnosis.

A systematic review on isolated coil embolization for pelvic venous reflux

OBJECTIVE

Pelvic venous reflux (PVR) can present with symptoms such as chronic pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea, and dyspareunia, resulting in a decreased quality of life among those affected. Percutaneous coil embolization (CE) is a common intervention for PVR; however, the efficacy and safety of its use in isolation has yet to be reviewed.

METHODS

The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were systematically searched from 1990 to July 20, 2020, for studies reporting on adult patients undergoing isolated CE for PVR. Articles not in English, case reports, studies reporting on pediatric patients, and studies not performing isolated CE were excluded. Search, review, and data extraction were performed by two independent reviewers (S.S. and M.T.). Changes in pain before and after CE was evaluated through a pooled analysis of visual analogue scale scores in seven studies.

RESULTS

A total of 970 patients (range, 3-218, 100% female) undergoing isolated ovarian vein or mixed veins embolization from 20 studies were included. Pooled analysis revealed mean improvements of 5.47 points (95% CI, 4.77-6.16) on the visual analogue scale. Common symptoms such as urinary urgency and dyspareunia reported significant improvements of 78-100% and 60-89.5% respectively. Complications were rare, with coil migration (n = 19) being the most common. Recurrence rates differed based on the varying symptoms and studies, with recurrence in pain 1-2 years after CE ranging from 5.9-25%. Two randomized controlled trials revealed improved clinical outcomes with CE as compared with vascular plugs and hysterectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

The current data suggests that isolated CE is technically effective and can result in clinical improvement among patients with PVR. However, further trials are required to ascertain its long-term effects.

Incidental Finding of an Asymptomatic Migrated Coil to the Right Ventricle Following Pelvic Vein Embolisation

Pelvic vein embolisation (PVE) with metallic coils is an effective treatment for pelvic venous congestion. The migration of coils following the procedure has been well-reported; however, the most effective approach to management is still unclear. In the present case, the authors describe the delayed identification of a migrated coil to the right ventricle following an ovarian vein embolisation. The patient presented to the emergency department with chest pain and subsequent radiology identified a coil in the right ventricle. This was found to be present on previous radiology, but had not been reported on. The position of the coil had remained stable and therefore was deemed an unlikely cause for the chest pain. The coil was managed conservatively. This demonstrates how asymptomatic coil migration may go undetected and thus the migration rates in the literature may be underreported. Post-PVE screening to assess for migration could improve the accuracy of complication rates and prevent delayed complications associated with migrated coils.

Updates in Magnetic Resonance Venous Imaging

For years, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) has been a leading imaging modality in the assessment of venous disease involving the pelvis and lower extremities. Current advancement in noncontrast MRA techniques enables imaging of a larger subset of patients previously excluded due to allergy or renal insufficiency, allowing for preintervention assessment and planning. In this article, the current status of MR venography, with a focus on current advancements, will be presented. Protocols and parameters for MR venographic imaging of the pelvis and lower extremities, including contrast and noncontrast enhanced techniques, will be reviewed based on a recent literature review of applied MR venographic techniques. Finally, several disease-specific entities, including pelvic congestion and compression syndromes, will be discussed with a focus on imaging parameters that may best characterize these disease processes and optimize anatomical planning prior to intervention.

Pelvic venous insufficiency secondary to iliac vein stenosis and ovarian vein reflux treated with iliac vein stenting alone

BACKGROUND

We have previously reported that in women with a pelvic venous disorder secondary to pelvic venous insufficiency, 56% will present with an iliac vein stenosis (IVS) and ovarian vein reflux (OVR). The purpose of the present investigation was to determine whether women with combined disease can be treated using iliac vein stenting alone.

METHODS

A retrospective review of prospectively collected data at the Center for Vascular Medicine was performed. We investigated women with pelvic pain or dyspareunia secondary to combined IVS and OVR who had undergone stenting alone. The patient demographics, pre- and 6-month postoperative visual analog scale (VAS) for pain scores, stent type, stent diameter, stent length, and ovarian vein diameters were assessed. All patients had undergone diagnostic venography of their pelvic veins, left ovarian veins, and pelvic reservoirs and intravascular ultrasonography of their iliac veins.

RESULTS

From May 2016 to October 2019, 82 patients with a pelvic venous disorder secondary to IVS and OVR were identified. The present data analysis focused on 38 patients with complete pre- and postoperative VAS scores and duplex scan stent patency data at 6 months. The pelvic and dyspareunia VAS scores at the initial and 6-month follow-up visits were as follows: 6.83 ± 3.19 and 4.24 ± 2.65 and 1.72 ± 2.01 and 0.05 ± 2.0, respectively (P ≤ .001). At 6 months, 29 of the 38 women (76%) reported complete resolution of all symptoms, 26 of 28 (93%) reported complete resolution of their dyspareunia, 5 of 38 (13%) reported significant improvement, and 4 of 38 (10%) reported no improvement. The average ovarian vein diameter was 6.7 ± 2.5 mm. The average stent size and length was 18.20 ± 1.6 mm and 92.41 ± 18.5 mm, with 25 placed in the left common iliac, 2 in the right common iliac vein, and 3 bilaterally. Of the 38 patients, 7 required reintervention (18%). An untreated pelvic reservoir was observed in 17 of the 38 patients (44%). One of the two with no response and six of the patients with improvement had OVR and an untreated pelvic reservoir. The remaining 10 patients with a pelvic reservoir had experienced complete resolution of their symptoms with stenting alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Of the 38 women with pelvic pain secondary to combined IVS and OVR, 76% achieved complete symptom resolution with iliac vein stenting alone. Most of the women with a pelvic reservoir were asymptomatic and reported full symptom resolution after stenting alone. However, these data suggest that in some women, a relationship might exist between the presence of a pelvic reservoir and the persistence of symptoms. Therefore, for women with combined IVS and OVR, we recommend iliac vein stenting alone and staged ovarian vein embolization only for women with persistent symptoms.

Female pelvic congestion syndrome: how can CT and MRI help in the management decision?

OBJECTIVE

Diagnosis of female pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS) is challenging. Although invasive venography is the gold-standard for diagnosis, however, CT and MRI are important in the assessment. In this study, we tried to highlight the role of CT and MRI as non-invasive tools in the diagnosis and management of PCS.

METHODS AND MATERIAL

This was a retrospective study of 50 patients confirmed clinically to have PCS. These patients had already done CT and MRI before venography or surgery.

RESULTS

The mean age of the patients was 48 years ± 12 years SD. Vaginal discharge and pelvic heaviness were the commonest symptoms (46 and 42% respectively). The commonest risk factor was multiparity (56%) followed by the RVF uterus (26%). No significant difference was found between CT, MRI, and venography as regarding the diameter of the ovarian vein, diameter, and the number of the varicose veins. The sensitivity of CT and MRI was 94.8 and 96%. CT and MRI discovered five cases with local pelvic obstructing cause,14 cases with evidence of vascular compression syndrome, and the rest 31 cases diagnosed to have primary non-obstructing PCS which was effective in decision-making with the surgery indicated in the first group while stenting of the vascular obstruction followed by bilateral ovarian veins coiling was the better option for the second group and only bilateral coiling was needed for the last group.

CONCLUSION

CT and MRI play important roles in the diagnosis and even management decision in cases of PCS.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE:

Identification of the importance of diagnostic radiology before management decisions of cases with PCS.

Increased prevalence of pelvic venous congestion sign on sacroiliac MRI in women with clinically suspected sacroiliitis

OBJECTIVE:

To compare the prevalence of pelvic venous congestion (PVC) sign on sacroiliac and hip MRI in women of reproductive age as a possible cause of pain mimicking sacroiliitis.

METHODS:

This retrospective study included 727 MRI examinations (401 sacroiliac joint MRI and 326 hip joint MRI) that were performed between January 2010 and December 2017. Images were evaluated for the presence of sacroiliitis, presence of PVC sign and presence of other incidental findings of musculoskeletal and genitourinary disorders. After removing patients with other musculoskeletal and genitourinary disorders that may cause pain (n=188), remaining 539 (322 sacroiliac and 217 hip), MRI examinations were re-analyzed for the presence of PVC sign.

RESULTS:

Four hundred one patients with sacroiliac MRI examination had 120 (29.9%) PVC sign and 326 patients with hip MRI examinations had 54 (16.6%) PVC sign (p<0.001). After removing patients with other musculoskeletal and genitourinary disorders that may cause pain, 322 patients with sacroiliac MRI had 102 (31.7%) PVC sign and 217 patients with hip MRI examinations had 38 (17.5%) PVC sign (p<0.001). No significant difference was found between patients with acute sacroiliitis and patients without acute sacroiliitis concerning PVC prevalence (p>0.05). There were also no significant differences between other comparable incidental findings.

CONCLUSION:

Significantly increased PVC prevalence in sacroiliac MRI exams may be attributable to PCS simulating clinical sacroiliitis.

Imaging findings of pelvic venous insufficiency in patients with postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome

OBJECTIVES

Some patients with postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) demonstrate improved dysautonomic symptoms following treatment for pelvic venous insufficiency (PVI). This study assessed the prevalence of significant left common iliac vein (LCIV) compression in POTS patients.

METHODS

Radiologists retrospectively reviewed CT images of pelvic veins for 216 women (191 with POTS and 25 age-comparable controls).Quantitative vascular analysis identified percent-diameter compression of the LCIV by the right common iliac artery. Significant LCIV compression was defined as >50%.

RESULTS

Significant LCIV compression was found in 69% (131/191) of females with POTS versus 40% (10/25) in controls. The hypothesis that venous compression and presence of POTS are independent was rejected (p = .005).

CONCLUSIONS

Significant LCIV compression was noted in a majority of female POTS patients, suggesting that incidence of iliac venous obstruction may be higher than the general population. Patients with POTS and symptoms of PVI may benefit from assessment for venous outflow obstruction.

Embolization of congenital portosystemic shunt presenting after pediatric liver transplantation: Case report and literature review

This case report describes a 13-year 10-month-old girl who underwent a deceased-donor split LT for primary diagnosis of biliary atresia at the age of 12 months, who presented with a lower GI bleed. Ultrasound and CT revealed a venous vascular anomaly involving the cecum and ascending colon, with communication of the SMV and pelvic veins consistent with a CEPS. Associated varices were noted in the pelvis along the uterus and urinary bladder. These findings were confirmed by trans-hepatic porto-venography, which was diagnostic and therapeutic as a successful embolization of the CEPS was performed using micro-coils. There were no complications following the procedure and no further GI bleeding occurred, illustrating the efficacy of this treatment option for CEPS. We discuss the literature regarding the presenting complaint of GI bleeding post-LT, CEPS as a rare cause of GI bleeding and its association with PV, and the classification and treatment of CEPS.

Pelvic Congestion Syndrome

Pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS) is often an underdiagnosed cause of chronic pelvic pain in female patients with radiology detection of gonadal vein dilatation and parauterine varices. It may occur either alone or in combination with vulvar varicosities and/or lower extremity venous insufficiency. Although transcatheter venography represent the gold standard for PCS diagnosis, it is performed after inconclusive noninvasive imaging such as Doppler Ultrasound, CT scan, and MRI. Once diagnosis has been confirmed, management of PCS include medical, surgical, and endovascular therapy. Medical and surgical treatments have been shown to be less effective than transcatheter pelvic vein embolization. This latter has been proven to be a safe, effective, and durable therapy for the treatment of PCS. Numerous studies have shown their results in PCS endovascular treatment, but neither of them has been subjected to an adequate randomized controlled trial. A well-designed randomized controlled trial is urgently needed to assess transcatheter embolization clinical success.

Imaging Appearance and Nonsurgical Management of Pelvic Venous Congestion Syndrome

Pelvic venous congestion syndrome (PVCS) is a challenging and complex cause of chronic pelvic pain in female patients. PVCS due to incompetent vein valves is the combination of gonadal vein reflux and pelvic venous engorgement in patients with chronic pelvic pain without other causes. However, pelvic venous engorgement and gonadal vein reflux can be seen in patients without pelvic pain, which makes obtaining a detailed history and physical examination important for workup and diagnosis. The underlying cause of PVCS may be incompetent gonadal vein valves or structural causes such as left renal vein compression with an incompetent gonadal vein valve (nutcracker syndrome) or iliac vein compression (May-Thurner configuration) with reflux into the ipsilateral internal iliac vein. Venography is considered the criterion standard for imaging diagnosis; however, more recently, US and MRI have been shown to provide adequate accuracy for diagnosis. Noninvasive imaging studies aid in the diagnosis of PVCS and also aid in pretreatment planning. When PVCS is caused by incompetent gonadal vein valves, treatment typically is performed by means of embolization via a minimally invasive catheter with excellent technical and clinical success rates. When PVCS is caused by venous obstruction, the obstruction must be treated first before gonadal vein embolization and sclerotherapy are considered. ^©RSNA, 2019 Online supplemental material is available for this article.

Role of Interventional Procedures in Obstetrics and Gynecology

Radiological guided intervention techniques are discussed in obstetric and gynecologic patients. Fallopian tube recanalization, postpartum hemorrhage control, techniques of treating uterine leiomyomas, pelvic congestion treatment, and the use of percutaneous and transvaginal ultrasonography-guided aspirations and biopsy are covered. These techniques use basic radiological interventional skills and show how they are adapted for use in the female pelvis.

Cross-sectional imaging of acute gynaecologic disorders: CT and MRI findings with differential diagnosis-part I: corpus luteum and haemorrhagic ovarian cysts, genital causes of haemoperitoneum and adnexal torsion

Acute gynaecologic disorders are commonly encountered in daily clinical practice of emergency departments (ED) and predominantly occur in reproductive-age women. Since clinical presentation may be nonspecific and physical findings are often inconclusive, imaging is required for a timely and accurate diagnosis. Although ultrasound is the ideal non-invasive first-line technique, nowadays multidetector computed tomography (CT) is extensively used in the ED, particularly when a non-gynaecologic disorder is suspected and differential diagnosis from gastrointestinal and urologic diseases is needed. As a result, CT often provides the first diagnosis of female genital emergencies. If clinical conditions and scanner availability permit, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is superior to CT for further characterisation of gynaecologic abnormalities, due to the excellent soft-tissue contrast, intrinsic multiplanar capabilities and lack of ionising radiation.

The purpose of this pictorial review is to provide radiologists with a thorough familiarity with gynaecologic emergencies by illustrating their cross-sectional imaging appearances. The present first section will review the CT and MRI findings of corpus luteum and haemorrhagic ovarian cysts, gynaecologic haemoperitoneum (from either ruptured corpus luteum or ectopic pregnancy) and adnexal torsion, with an emphasis on differential diagnosis. Additionally, comprehensive and time-efficient MRI acquisition protocols are provided.

Role of trans-abdominal and trans-perineal venous duplex ultrasound in cases of pelvic congestion syndrome

Background

For evaluation the role of trans-abdominal and trans-perineal venous duplex ultrasound in cases of pelvic congestion syndrome, fifty patients with pelvic congestion syndrome were included in the current research. All were evaluated by trans-abdominal and trans-perineal venous duplex.

Results

An incompetent left gonadal vein was detected in all cases with a mean diameter (± SD) = 7.9 ± 1.1 mm. The right gonadal vein was incompetent in 4 cases (8%) with a mean diameter (± SD) 5.9 ± 0.4 mm.

A refluxing proximal internal iliac vein was detected in 3cases (6%). Left renal vein nutcracker was present in 41cases (82%) while the left common iliac vein compression was present in 3 cases (6%).

Vulvoperineal varicosities were seen in all cases {right side = (36%, n = 18), left side = (30%, n = 15), and bilateral = (34%, n = 17)}.Thigh extension of the vulvoperineal varicosities was present in (74%, n = 37).

Round ligament varicosities were present in (6%, n = 3).

Conclusions

Trans-abdominal and trans-perineal venous duplex offer a simple, noninvasive, and quick technique that can help in an accurate evaluation of the ovarian vein reflux, diameters as well as the presence of vulvoperineal, and round ligament varicosities, Moreover, it is useful in the assessment of the left renal and iliac veins compression.

Pelvic congestion syndrome and embolization of pelvic varicose veins

Pelvic congestion syndrome (PGS) is defined as chronic pelvic pain for more than 6 months associated with perineal and vulvar varicose veins caused by reflux or obstruction in gonadal, gluteal, or parauterine veins. PGS accounts for 16-31% of cases of chronic pelvic pain, and is usually diagnosed in the third and fourth decades of life. Interest in this condition among vascular surgeons has been increasing over recent years because of its association with venous insufficiency of the lower limbs. Despite its significant prevalence, PGS is still poorly diagnosed in both gynecology and angiology offices. Therefore, in this article we review the etiology and diagnosis of this condition and the outcomes of the different types of treatment available.

MR venography using time-resolved imaging in interventional management of pelvic venous insufficiency

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To evaluate the utility of magnetic resonance venography with time-resolved imaging (MRV TRI) in the diagnosis of pelvic vein insufficiency (PVI).

RECENT FINDINGS

A retrospective single-center review of N = 17 consecutive patients who underwent pelvic MRI for the assessment of PVI was performed. N = 8/17 (47%) studies were positive for PVI. TRI imaging demonstrated N = 6/8 patients with Grade 0-3 PVI and N = 2/8 patients with May-Thurner Syndrome. N = 4/8 patients underwent elective endovascular management, all of which were technically successful. In the assessment of PVI, MRV TRI provides a dynamic assessment of venous insufficiency, serving as an adjunct to the imaging diagnosis of this pathology.

Evaluating the frequency and severity of ovarian venous congestion on adult computed tomography

PURPOSE

While pelvic congestion syndrome and chronic pelvic pain are relatively common in women, no large- or medium-sized studies have been conducted to our knowledge to evaluate the frequency and severity of ovarian vein dilatation (OVD) on computed tomography (CT). The purpose of our study was therefore to analyze a large number of consecutive abdominal and pelvic CT scans in adult women to determine OVD frequency and severity.

METHODS

An IRB-approved, single-institution retrospective analysis of 1042 consecutive abdominal and pelvic CT scans in women ages 25-65 was performed. Scans were evaluated for the presence and severity of OVD and association with "nutcracker anatomy." A gradation scheme was developed based on quartile analysis.

RESULTS

143 of the CT scans had OVD (13.7%). Of the positive scans, 96 were bilateral, 29 were left-side only, 18 were right-side only, and 18 had nutcracker-type compression of the left renal vein (14.4% of scans with left or bilateral OVD). In positive scans, the mean and median left OVD were 7.5 and 7 mm, respectively, and right-side were 7.2 and 7 mm, respectively. Based on quartile analysis, OVD grading was mild (< 6 mm), moderate (6-8 mm), or severe (> 8 mm), with moderate including the middle 50% of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

OVD was found on 13.7% of 1042 consecutive female abdominal and pelvic CT scans, with "nutcracker anatomy" present in 14.4% of the scans with left OVD. Moderate dilatation was defined as an OVD of 6-8 mm at the iliac crests.

Pelvic congestion syndrome due to agenesis of the infrarenal inferior vena cava

The inferior vena cava (IVC) is the main conduit of venous return to the right atrium from the lower extremities and abdominal organs. Agenesis of the IVC has an incidence of <1% in the general population [1], although it has been reported in the literature as occurring in up to 8.7% of the population [2]. Patients with absent IVC may present with symptoms of lower extremity venous insufficiency [6], idiopathic deep venous thrombosis [7], or pelvic congestion syndrome. To our knowledge there have only been a few cases reported in the literature of agenesis of the IVC associated with pelvic congestion syndrome [3,10,11]. We present another interesting case of pelvic congestion syndrome due to absent IVC.

Pelvic Congestion Syndrome: Systematic Review of Treatment Success

Pelvic venous insufficiency is now a well-characterized etiology of pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS). The prevalence of CPP is 15% in females aged 18 to 50 years in the United States and up to 43.4% worldwide. In addition to individual physical, emotional, and quality-of-life implications of CPP, there are profound healthcare and socioeconomic expenses with estimated annual direct and indirect costs in the United States in excess of 39 billion dollars. PCS consists of clinical symptoms with concomitant anatomic and physiologic abnormalities originating in venous insufficiency. The etiology of PCS is diverse involving both mechanical and hormonal factors contributing to venous dilatation (>5 mm) and insufficiency. Factors affecting the diagnosis of PCS include variance of causes and clinical presentations of pelvic pain and relatively low sensitivity of noninvasive diagnostic imaging and laparoscopy to identify insufficiency compared with catheter venogram. A systematic review of the literature evaluating patient outcomes following percutaneous treatment of PCS is presented.

A Modern Radiologic Treatment for Pelvic Congestion Syndrome Associated with Chronic Pelvic Pain and Menstrual Abnormalities

Introduction

With greater than one-tenth of outpatient gynecology visits attributed to chronic pelvic pain, research into etiology and management of the spectra of chronic pain disorders is very important. One such etiology, pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS), is a disease in which pelvic varicosities are present as a result of dysfunctional venous valves, retrograde blood flow, venous hypertension, and dilation. The presence of these varicosities, which exist in up to 10% of women between 18 and 76 years of age, can be detected by various imaging techniques including ultrasound, contrasted computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Various treatment methodologies have been described for the management of this chronic pain disorder, including medical, endovascular, and surgical therapies. With advancements in imaging, and the opportunity for endovascular intervention via interventional radiology, minimally invasive left ovarian vein embolization is at the forefront of therapeutic efforts for this nefarious condition.

Methods

We present here our clinical experience of 9 patients with PCS who underwent left ovarian vein embolization using a standardized protocol.

Results

Subjective pain relief was noted in 8 of 9 patients; 7 of the 9 patients reported complete resolution of pain at the 4-week follow-up, and associated symptoms similarly resolved.

Conclusions

Any thorough evaluation of a patient with chronic pelvic pain should include an evaluation for PCS when the diagnosis is not immediately available. Increased physician awareness of PCS is imperative for the future. With these astounding results, we recommend an excellent option for treatment of patients with left ovarian vein embolization.

Diagnostic Evaluation of Chronic Pelvic Pain

Chronic pelvic pain can result from various intra- and extra-pelvic etiologies. Although patient history and physical examination may narrow the differential diagnosis, frequently, the different etiologies have overlapping presentations. Imaging examinations such as US and/or MR imaging may help delineate the cause of pain, particularly when related to intra-pelvic organs, pelvic floor dysfunction or prolapse, synthetic material such as pelvic mesh or slings, and in some cases of neuropathic pain. Etiologies of neuropathic pain can also be assessed with non-imaging tests such as nerve conduction studies, electromyography, and testing of sacral reflexes.

Evaluation of sacroiliac joint MRI for pelvic venous congestion signs in women clinically suspected of sacroiliitis

Background Pelvic congestion syndrome (PCS) is a commonly overlooked condition which is a potential cause of chronic pelvic pain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the sacroiliac joint (SIJ) may demonstrate unexpected conditions that can mimic sacroiliitis (SI). Awareness of MRI-defined pelvic venous congestion (PVC) may help in identifying PCS, where vascular abnormality may be the sole manifestation of SIJ pain. Purpose To detect incidental MRI-defined PVC in patients who underwent SIJ-MRI for presumed SI and define the variance of its incidence. Material and Methods A total of 870 women who underwent SIJ-MRI were retrospectively evaluated. Incidental findings of PVC and other genitourinary and musculoskeletal system disorders were documented. Results Of the 774 included patients, 37% demonstrated incidentally detected imaging findings related to the genitourinary system, musculoskeletal system, and PVC. The prevalence of MRI-defined PVC signs was higher in patients without SI than with SI. The prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders was higher in patients with SI whereas prevalence for genitourinary disorders was similar. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed a statistically significant correlation between SI-PVC and SI-genitourinary disorders but not between SI-musculoskeletal disorders pairs ( P = 0.001, 0.001, and 0.057 > 0.05). The probability of observing SI in SIJ-MRI is positively correlated with the absence of PVC or genitourinary disorders. Conclusion Patients who underwent MRI for presumed SI demonstrated incidental PVC as well as other genitourinary and musculoskeletal findings. An awareness of these imaging findings can help identify PVC and may draw clinicians' attention to the possibility of PCS.

Utility of Adjunctive Digital Subtraction Venography for the Treatment of Saphenous Vein Insufficiency

PURPOSE

To report the use of adjunctive venography for the treatment of superficial venous reflux.

METHODS

Two hundred consecutive patients (mean age 60.9 years, range 33-86; 128 women) with chronic venous disease underwent saphenous or perforator vein ablation in 268 limbs (305 venous trunks) guided by adjunctive venography and fluoroscopy in addition to ultrasound between October 2010 and May 2016. Intraprocedural venograms were independently evaluated by 2 vascular specialists to identify the presence of venous anomalies and the need for fluoroscopy-guided maneuvers to successfully complete venous ablation. Intraprocedural venography results were compared with preoperative venous duplex scan reports to ascertain if the duplex study could be of value in identifying preoperatively any anatomical variants that may pose a technical challenge to the operator.

RESULTS

In this cohort, 542 venograms (2.0/limb) were performed with a mean duration of 4.9±9.1 minutes (range 1-48). Two thirds of patients (132, 66%) had anomalies or abnormalities within the target vein; more than a third (88, 44%) required an endovascular maneuver to successfully complete the ablation and 17% (34) of cases were impossible to complete without adjunctive fluoroscopic guidance. Per-patient comparison of intraprocedural venography with preoperative venous duplex reports identified 21 (11%) patients with abnormalities detected on ultrasound (23 anomalies) compared with 123 (64%) on venography (193 anomalies). This gave ultrasound a 17.1% sensitivity, 100% specificity and positive predictive value, and 40.7% negative predictive value.

CONCLUSION

Venography is a valuable addition to ultrasound to facilitate complete ablation of insufficient saphenous veins in selected patients with complex anatomy.

Sonographic View of Pelvic Congestion Syndrome

A particular pelvic pathology that may not be recognized, and is easily missed, is pelvic congestion syndrome. There is limited understanding about this condition, and many sonographers may have limited to no knowledge of this disorder. This article is to bring an awareness of this condition and the sonographic images necessary to obtain, so that further testing and possible treatment could relieve the patient of symptoms. Since a pelvic sonogram is generally the first modality of choice when an assessment of the pelvic organs is ordered, detailed imaging of all the pelvic region should be evaluated, including the vessels within this area. When evaluating a patient with chronic pelvic pain and visualizing any dilated vessels during a transabdominal or transvaginal sonogram, further imaging and documentation are essential. With this additional information, further testing with computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging, along with a venogram, may result in a definitive diagnosis of pelvic congestion syndrome to facilitate treatment.