Expression of nuclear Ki-67 antigen in prostatic high grade intraepithelial neoplasia and prostatic carcinoma

Effect of CXCL12 and Its Receptors on Unpredictable Renal Cell Carcinoma

Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that participate in numerous cell functions during hematopoiesis, morphogenesis, inflammation, neovascularization, and autoimmune diseases and cancer. They achieve their functions on binding to their G protein-coupled receptors. CXCL12, or stromal cell-derived factor-1, is a homeostatic chemokine secreted by fibroblasts, macrophages, and endothelial cells. It binds to CXC receptor 4 (CXCR4), also known as fusin (CD184), and alternate CXC receptor 7 (CXCR7), also known as atypical chemokine receptor 3. The CXCL12/CXCR4 axis participates in homing of hematopoietic stem cells and the development and production of B and T lymphocytes, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, and natural killer cells. It has been examined in > 20 different malignancies. CXCL12 plays an important role in tumor metastasis because it mediates the migration of tumor cells through the endothelial vessel wall and extracellular matrix. Its expression has been highest in common metastatic sites such as the brain, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and liver. CXCR4 is expressed by tumor cells in prostate, breast, lung, and other malignancies. Numerous studies have shown its correlation with a poor prognosis, recurrence-free survival, and poor overall survival. The present review has addressed the structure and function of CXCL12 and its receptors and the effect CXCL12/CXCR4 axis has on the pathogenesis and clinical development of renal cell carcinoma, one of the most aggressive cancers in urology, with limited therapeutic options.