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Li SJ, Wu YL, Chen JH, Shen SY, Duan J, Xu HE. Autoimmune diseases: targets, biology, and drug discovery. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2024; 45:674-685. [PMID: 38097717 PMCID: PMC10943205 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-023-01207-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases (AIDs) arise from a breakdown in immunological self-tolerance, wherein the adaptive immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells, tissues and organs. AIDs impose excessive treatment costs and currently rely on non-specific and universal immunosuppression, which only offer symptomatic relief without addressing the underlying causes. AIDs are driven by autoantigens, targeting the autoantigens holds great promise in transforming the treatment of these diseases. To achieve this goal, a comprehensive understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying different AIDs and the identification of specific autoantigens are critical. In this review, we categorize AIDs based on their underlying causes and compile information on autoantigens implicated in each disease, providing a roadmap for the development of novel immunotherapy regimens. We will focus on type 1 diabetes (T1D), which is an autoimmune disease characterized by irreversible destruction of insulin-producing β cells in the Langerhans islets of the pancreas. We will discuss insulin as possible autoantigen of T1D and its role in T1D pathogenesis. Finally, we will review current treatments of TID and propose a potentially effective immunotherapy targeting autoantigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Jie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, Fuzhou, 350000, China.
| | - Yan-Li Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Juan-Hua Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Shi-Yi Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jia Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan, 528400, China.
| | - H Eric Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- School of Life Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
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Gillespie KM, Fareed R, Mortimer GL. Four decades of the Bart's Oxford study: Improved tests to predict type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2021; 38:e14717. [PMID: 34655243 DOI: 10.1111/dme.14717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent success in clinical trials to delay the onset of type 1 diabetes has heralded a new era of type 1 diabetes research focused on the most accurate methods to predict risk and progression rate in the general population. Risk prediction for type 1 diabetes has been ongoing since the 1970s and 1980s when human leucocyte antigen (HLA) variants and islet autoantibodies associated with type 1 diabetes were first described. Development of prediction methodologies has relied on well-characterised cohorts and samples. The Bart's Oxford (BOX) study of type 1 diabetes has been recruiting children with type 1 diabetes and their first (and second)-degree relatives since 1985. In this review, we use the timeline of the study to review the accompanying basic science developments which have facilitated improved prediction by genetic (HLA analysis through to genetic risk scores) and biochemical strategies (islet cell autoantibodies through to improved individual tests for antibodies to insulin, glutamate decarboxylase, the tyrosine phosphatase IA-2, zinc transporter 8 and tetraspanin 7). The type 1 diabetes community are poised to move forward using the best predictive markers to predict and delay the onset of type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Gillespie
- Diabetes and Metabolism, Bristol Medical School, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Rana Fareed
- Diabetes and Metabolism, Bristol Medical School, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Georgina L Mortimer
- Diabetes and Metabolism, Bristol Medical School, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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Donnelly C, Williams A. Investigating the potential impact of post translational modification of auto-antigens by tissue transglutaminase on humoral islet autoimmunity in type 1 diabetes. Metabol Open 2020; 8:100062. [PMID: 33103101 PMCID: PMC7569324 DOI: 10.1016/j.metop.2020.100062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Post-translational modification (PTM) of antigens plays a role in the pathogenesis of many autoimmune disorders. In coeliac disease (CD), tissue transglutaminase (tTG) deamidates gliadin peptides to activate the immune response against the gut endomysium. CD is six times more prevalent in type 1 diabetes (T1D) patients than in the general population. Hypothesis tTG also modifies auto-antigens implicated in the pathogenesis of T1D, leading to an autoimmune response to pancreatic β-cells. Methods tTG PTM was investigated in the following auto-antigens, which had been previously shown to have high importance in the development of T1D: glutamic acid decarboxylase isoform 65 (GAD65), full length islet antigen (IA-2), intracellular portion of IA-2 (IA-2ic), and both isoforms of zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8W and ZnT8R), on antibody binding. Radiolabelled antigen was incubated with tTG for 20 h at 37 °C in 100 mM Denver buffer, 3.33 nM CaCl2, at pH 7.3. Antibody binding in 20 mixed samples from the Bart’s-Oxford (BOX) cohort was measured by radiobinding assay. Results Results varied between serum samples. Generally, tTG treatment of ZnT8W, ZnT8R and IA-2ic showed no significant change in antigen: autoantibody binding, while increases in binding were observed with tTG-treated GAD65 and full length IA-2. Conclusion In the case of GAD65, full length IA-2, the strength of antibody: antigen binding increased after incubation with tTG. However, the exact tTG-modification events that occurred requires further elucidation. Post-translational modification of antigens plays a role in the pathogenesis of many autoimmune disorders. Celiac disease is six times more prevalent in type 1 diabetics. Tissue transglutaminase modifies auto-antigens GAD65 and full-length IA-2 to increase antibody binding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alistair Williams
- Diabetes and Metabolism, Translational Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Southmead Hospital, Bristol, UK
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Guerra LL, Faccinetti NI, Trabucchi A, Rovitto BD, Sabljic AV, Poskus E, Iacono RF, Valdez SN. Novel prokaryotic expression of thioredoxin-fused insulinoma associated protein tyrosine phosphatase 2 (IA-2), its characterization and immunodiagnostic application. BMC Biotechnol 2016; 16:84. [PMID: 27881117 PMCID: PMC5122161 DOI: 10.1186/s12896-016-0309-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The insulinoma associated protein tyrosine phosphatase 2 (IA-2) is one of the immunodominant autoantigens involved in the autoimmune attack to the beta-cell in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. In this work we have developed a complete and original process for the production and recovery of the properly folded intracellular domain of IA-2 fused to thioredoxin (TrxIA-2ic) in Escherichia coli GI698 and GI724 strains. We have also carried out the biochemical and immunochemical characterization of TrxIA-2icand design variants of non-radiometric immunoassays for the efficient detection of IA-2 autoantibodies (IA-2A). Results The main findings can be summarized in the following statements: i) TrxIA-2ic expression after 3 h of induction on GI724 strain yielded ≈ 10 mg of highly pure TrxIA-2ic/L of culture medium by a single step purification by affinity chromatography, ii) the molecular weight of TrxIA-2ic (55,358 Da) could be estimated by SDS-PAGE, size exclusion chromatography and mass spectrometry, iii) TrxIA-2ic was properly identified by western blot and mass spectrometric analysis of proteolytic digestions (63.25 % total coverage), iv) excellent immunochemical behavior of properly folded full TrxIA-2ic was legitimized by inhibition or displacement of [35S]IA-2 binding from IA-2A present in Argentinian Type 1 Diabetic patients, v) great stability over time was found under proper storage conditions and vi) low cost and environmentally harmless ELISA methods for IA-2A assessment were developed, with colorimetric or chemiluminescent detection. Conclusions E. coli GI724 strain emerged as a handy source of recombinant IA-2ic, achieving high levels of expression as a thioredoxin fusion protein, adequately validated and applicable to the development of innovative and cost-effective immunoassays for IA-2A detection in most laboratories. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12896-016-0309-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano Lucas Guerra
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Natalia Inés Faccinetti
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Aldana Trabucchi
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Bruno David Rovitto
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Adriana Victoria Sabljic
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Edgardo Poskus
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ruben Francisco Iacono
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvina Noemí Valdez
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral "Prof. Ricardo A. Margni" (IDEHU), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Elvers KT, Williams AJK. Molecular Methods and Protein Synthesis for Definition of Autoantibody Epitopes. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1433:179-207. [PMID: 27032951 DOI: 10.1007/7651_2016_339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Epitope mapping is the process of experimentally identifying the binding sites, or "epitopes," of antibodies on their target antigens. Understanding the antibody-epitope interaction provides a basis for the rational design of potential preventative vaccines. Islet autoantibodies are currently the best available biomarkers for predicting future type 1 diabetes. These include autoantibodies to the islet beta cell proteins, insulin and the tyrosine phosphatase islet antigen-2 (IA-2) which selectively bind to a small number of dominant epitopes associated with increased risk of disease progression. The major epitope regions of insulin and IA-2 autoantibodies have been identified, but need to be mapped more precisely. In order to characterize these epitopes more accurately, this article describes the methods of cloning and mutagenesis of insulin and IA-2 and subsequent purification of the proteins that can be tested in displacement analysis and used to monitor immune responses, in vivo, to native and mutated proteins in a humanized mouse model carrying the high-risk HLA class II susceptibility haplotype DRB1*04-DQ8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen T Elvers
- Diabetes and Metabolism Unit, School of Clinical Sciences, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
| | - Alistair J K Williams
- Diabetes and Metabolism Unit, School of Clinical Sciences, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic inflammatory disease, caused by the immune mediated destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in the islets of the pancreas (Ziegler and Nepom, Immunity 32(4):468-478, 2010). Semiquantitative assays with high specificity and sensitivity for T1D are now available to detect antibodies to the four major islet autoantigens: glutamate decarboxylase (GADA) (Baekkeskov et al., Nature 347(6289):151-156, 1990), the protein tyrosine phosphatase-like proteins IA-2 (IA-2A) and IA-2β (Notkins et al., Diabetes Metab Rev 14(1):85-93, 1998), zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8A) (Wenzlau et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(43):17040-17045, 2007), and insulin (IAA) (Palmer, Diabetes Metab Rev 3(4):1005-1015, 1987). More than 85 % of cases of newly diagnosed or future T1D can be identified by testing for antibodies to GADA and/or IA-2A/IAA, with 98 % specificity (Bingley et al., Diabet Care 24(2):398, 2001). Overall, radioimmunoassay (RIA) is considered the de facto gold standard format for the measurement of T1D autoantibodies (Bottazzo et al., Lancet 2(7892):1279-1283, 1974; Schlosser et al., Diabetologia 53(12):2611-2620, 2010). Here we describe current methods for autoantibody measurement using RIA. These fluid phase assays use radiolabeled ligands and immunoprecipitation to quantify autoantibodies to GAD, IA-2, ZnT8, and insulin (Bonifacio et al., J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95(7):3360-3367, 2010; Long et al., Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(2):632-637, 2012; Williams et al., J Autoimmun 10(5):473-478, 1997).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Wyatt
- Diabetes and Metabolism Unit, School of Clinical Sciences, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Alistair J K Williams
- Diabetes and Metabolism Unit, School of Clinical Sciences, Southmead Hospital, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
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McLaughlin KA, Richardson CC, Williams S, Bonifacio E, Morgan D, Feltbower RG, Powell M, Rees Smith B, Furmaniak J, Christie MR. Relationships between major epitopes of the IA-2 autoantigen in Type 1 diabetes: Implications for determinant spreading. Clin Immunol 2015; 160:226-36. [PMID: 26071317 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Diversification of autoimmunity to islet autoantigens is critical for progression to Type 1 diabetes. B-cells participate in diversification by modifying antigen processing, thereby influencing which peptides are presented to T-cells. In Type 1 diabetes, JM antibodies are associated with T-cell responses to PTP domain peptides. We investigated whether this is the consequence of close structural alignment of JM and PTP domain determinants on IA-2. Fab fragments of IA-2 antibodies with epitopes mapped to the JM domain blocked IA-2 binding of antibodies that recognise epitopes in the IA-2 PTP domain. Peptides from both the JM and PTP domains were protected from degradation during proteolysis of JM antibody:IA-2 complexes and included those representing major T-cell determinants in Type 1 diabetes. The results demonstrate close structural relationships between JM and PTP domain epitopes on IA-2. Stabilisation of PTP domain peptides during proteolysis in JM-specific B-cells may explain determinant spreading in IA-2 autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A McLaughlin
- Division of Diabetes & Nutritional Sciences, Hodgkin Building, King's College London Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Carolyn C Richardson
- Division of Diabetes & Nutritional Sciences, Hodgkin Building, King's College London Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Stefan Williams
- Division of Diabetes & Nutritional Sciences, Hodgkin Building, King's College London Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Ezio Bonifacio
- Center for Regenerative Therapies, Fetscherstrasse 105, 01317 Dresden, Germany
| | - Diana Morgan
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Medicine, Worsley Building, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Richard G Feltbower
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Medicine, Worsley Building, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Michael Powell
- FIRS Laboratories, RSR Ltd, Parc Ty Glas, Llanishen, Cardiff CF14 5DU, UK
| | - Bernard Rees Smith
- FIRS Laboratories, RSR Ltd, Parc Ty Glas, Llanishen, Cardiff CF14 5DU, UK
| | - Jadwiga Furmaniak
- FIRS Laboratories, RSR Ltd, Parc Ty Glas, Llanishen, Cardiff CF14 5DU, UK
| | - Michael R Christie
- Division of Diabetes & Nutritional Sciences, Hodgkin Building, King's College London Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK.
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Skärstrand H, Krupinska E, Haataja TJK, Vaziri-Sani F, Lagerstedt JO, Lernmark Å. Zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8) autoantibody epitope specificity and affinity examined with recombinant ZnT8 variant proteins in specific ZnT8R and ZnT8W autoantibody-positive type 1 diabetes patients. Clin Exp Immunol 2015; 179:220-9. [PMID: 25178386 PMCID: PMC4298399 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Variant-specific zinc transporter 8 autoantibodies (ZnT8A) against either arginine (R) or tryptophan (W) at amino acid (aa) position 325 of the zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8) has been identified in type 1 diabetes (T1D) patients. Reciprocal cross-over tests revealed differences in half-maximal binding to indicate variable affinity of patient ZnT8 autoantibodies. Insufficient recombinant ZnT8 variant proteins have precluded detailed analyses of ZnT8 autoantibody affinity. The aims in the present study were to (i) generate recombinant ZnT8R- and ZnT8W-aa275-369 proteins; (ii) test the ZnT8R- and ZnT8W-aa275-369 proteins in reciprocal competitive radiobinding assays (RBA) against ZnT8R- and ZnT8W-aa268-369 labelled with (35) S-methionine; and (iii) determine the specificity and affinity of sera specific for either ZnT8 arginine (R) or ZnT8 tryptophan (W) autoantibodies in newly diagnosed T1D patients. The results demonstrate, first, that it was possible to produce recombinant human MBP-ZnT8-aa275-369 protein purified to homogeneity for RBA reciprocal competition experiments. Secondly, high-titre ZnT8WA sera diluted to half maximal binding showed significant specificity for respective variants of either ZnT8R or ZnT8W. Thirdly, ZnT8WA-positive sera showed high affinity for ZnT8W compared to ZnT8RA for ZnT8R. These data demonstrate that T1D patients may have single amino acid-specific autoantibodies directed against either ZnT8R or ZnT8W and that the autoantibody affinity to the respective variant may be different. Further studies are needed to assess the mechanisms by which variant-specific ZnT8A of variable affinity develop and their possible role in the pathogenic process leading to the clinical onset of T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Skärstrand
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden
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