Gender differences in cardiology: is it time for new guidelines?

Is there a difference between women and men in chronic spontaneous urticaria? A systematic review on gender and sex differences in CSU patients

In recent years, there has been a notable surge in interest in gender medicine, with a growing focus on exploring gender and sex differences in skin diseases.Although it is noticeable in clinical practice that more women than men present with chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) in the outpatient setting, there is currently no systematic review available which addresses gender differences in CSU. PubMed Medline, Web of Science, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) were searched until July 2023. English and German randomized controlled trials, prospective and retrospective cohorts, and case-control studies that examined gender and sex differences in CSU were included. Two authors independently screened the reports for eligibility. One extracted all data, the second double-checked and critically appraised the quality and risk of bias of the studies. Twenty-six reports were included. The article reviewed differences in epidemiology, diagnostics, clinical characteristics, treatment, and quality of life in female and male patients. The findings provide limited data for the substantial impact of gender and sex in CSU patients and reveal major gaps in gender-specific care in dermatology which should be narrowed in the upcoming years to optimize patient-centered, individualized, gender-equal healthcare.

PROSPERO registration

CRD42023442958.

Establishing Healthcare Discrimination: An Analysis of Scandinavian Equality Boards

Discrimination in healthcare is a pervasive issue faced by patients, affecting their access to treatment and overall well-being. This article examines the forms of healthcare discrimination recognised by Scandinavian equality boards through a comparative analysis of their decisions. While social science studies have established the existence of discrimination based on ethnicity, race, gender, sexuality, and age, proving such discrimination in legal terms poses significant challenges. An analysis of board decisions reveals that patients face barriers in establishing legally actionable discrimination, as perceived discriminatory conduct may not meet the criteria for legal claims. Additionally, equality boards are often hesitant to intervene in medical decision-making processes, further complicating the path to legal recourse. Lack of evidentiary support, especially in cases of unconscious bias, makes it difficult for some patients to substantiate claims of discrimination. The findings underscore the complexities of addressing healthcare discrimination through legal means. To effectively combat discrimination, there is a need to clarify the goals of discrimination law in the healthcare context and consider its future application within the broader context of human rights and equality.

Blockchain technology in Cardiovascular Medicine: a glance to the future? Results from a social media survey and future perspectives

The leverage of digital facilities in medicine for disease diagnosis, monitoring, and medical history recording has become increasingly pivotal. However, the advancement of these technologies poses a significant challenge regarding data privacy, given the highly sensitive nature of medical information. In this context, the application of Blockchain technology, a digital system where information is stored in blocks and each block is linked to the one before, has the potential to enhance existing technologies through its exceptional security and transparency. This paradigm is of particular importance in cardiovascular medicine, where the prevalence of chronic conditions leads to the need for secure remote monitoring, secure data storage and secure medical history updating. Indeed, digital support for chronic cardiovascular pathologies is getting more and more crucial. This paper lays its rationale in three primary aims: 1) to scrutinize the existing literature for tangible applications of blockchain technology in the field of cardiology; 2) to report results from a survey aimed at gauging the reception of blockchain technology within the cardiovascular community, conducted on social media; 3) to conceptualize a web application tailored specifically to cardiovascular care based on blockchain technology. We believe that Blockchain technology may contribute to a breakthrough in healthcare digitalization, especially in the field of cardiology; in this context, we hope that the present work may be inspiring for physicians and healthcare stakeholders.

Gender differences in comorbidities of patients with COVID-19: An Italian local register-based analysis

In the current COVID-19 pandemic scenario, it is still necessary to understand if differences exist between genders in terms of patients' characteristics and clinical outcomes. For this reason, we retrospectively analyzed data obtained from a local register-based dataset of all SARS-CoV-2 positive patients diagnosed in the province of Catania (Italy). The main aim of this analysis was to understand any differences between genders in the distribution of previous medical conditions, and to evaluate which of them posed individuals at higher risk of death. With this purpose, we analyzed data from 1424 patients with at least one underlying medical condition, who were tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection from February 2020 to December 2021. Overall, males were 59.5% of the total population and significantly younger than females (median ages: 68 years vs. 72 years; p = 0.011). The age distribution of cases by gender confirms that individuals from 70 to 79 years were the most affected in both genders. The comparison of underlying comorbidities by gender shows significant differences for diabetes (p < 0.001), other metabolic diseases (p = 0.006), and obesity (p = 0.019). Accordingly, multivariable logistic regression analysis confirmed that diabetes was more likely to be present in males than in females (p = 0.001), while other metabolic diseases and obesity were less likely to be present (p = 0.003 and p = 0.005, respectively). Although no difference in mortality was evident between genders (p = 0.141), both male and female COVID-19 patients had a significantly higher risk of death if they had comorbidities such as CVDs, kidney diseases, or chronic neurological diseases. Moreover, diabetes and chronic respiratory diseases were significant risk factors for COVID-19 mortality among men, whereas cancer was a significant contributor among women. Our findings confirm gender-differences in pre-existing medical conditions of COVID-19 patients, which may influence the risk of death. Further studies, however, are needed to understand physiological and pathological mechanisms underpinning these differences.

Update on Management of Cardiovascular Diseases in Women

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) have a lower prevalence in women than men; although, a higher mortality rate and a poorer prognosis are more common in women. However, there is a misperception of CVD female risk since women have commonly been considered more protected so that the real threat is vastly underestimated. Consequently, female patients are more likely to be treated less aggressively, and a lower rate of diagnostic and interventional procedures is performed in women than in men. In addition, there are substantial sex differences in CVD, so different strategies are needed. This review aims to evaluate the main gender-specific approaches in CVD.

Impact of COVID-19 on Cardiovascular Disease Presentation, Emergency Department Triage and Inpatient Cardiology Services in a Low- to Middle-Income Country – Perspective from a Tertiary Care Hospital of Pakistan

Aims:

To identify the changes in cardiovascular disease presentation, emergency room triage and inpatient diagnostic and therapeutic pathways.

Methods:

We conducted a retrospective cohort study at the Aga Khan University Hospital, Karachi. We collected data for patients presenting to the emergency department with cardiovascular symptoms between March–July 2019 (pre-COVID period) and March–July 2020 (COVID period). The comparison was made to quantify the differences in demographics, clinical characteristics, admission, diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, and in-hospital mortality between the two periods.

Results:

Of 2976 patients presenting with cardiac complaints to the emergency department (ED), 2041(69%) patients presented during the pre-COVID period, and 935 (31%) patients presented during the COVID period. There was significant reduction in acute coronary syndrome (ACS) (8% [95% CI 4–11], p < 0.001) and heart failure (↓6% [95% CI 3–8], p < 0.001). A striking surge was noted in Type II Myocardial injury (↑18% [95% CI 20–15], p < 0.001) during the pandemic. There was reduction in cardiovascular admissions (coronary care unit p < 0.01, coronary step-down unit p = 0.03), cardiovascular imaging (p < 0.001), and procedures (percutaneous coronary intervention p = 0.04 and coronary angiography p = 0.02). No significant difference was noted in mortality (4.7% vs. 3.7%). The percentage of patients presenting from rural areas declined significantly during the COVID period (18% vs. 14%, p = 0.01). In the subgroup analysis of sex, we noticed a falling trend of intervention performed in females during the COVID period (8.2% male vs. 3.3 % female).

Conclusions:

This study shows a significant decline in patients presenting with Type I myocardial infarction (MI) and a decrease in cardiovascular imaging and procedures during the COVID period. There was a significant increase noted in Type II MI.

Effect of diurnal temperature change on cardiovascular risks differed under opposite temperature trends

Temperature change between neighboring days (TCN) is an important trigger for cardiovascular diseases, but the modulated effects by seasonal temperature trends have been barely taken into account. A quantified comparison between impacts of positive TCNs (temperature rise) and negative situations (temperature drop) is also needed. We evaluated the associations of TCNs with emergency room (ER) visits for coronary heart disease (CHD) and cerebral infarction (CI) in Beijing, China, from 2008 to 2012. A year was divided into two segments dominated by opposite temperature trends, quasi-Poisson regression with distributed lag nonlinear models estimating TCN-morbidity relations were employed, separately for each period. High morbidities of CHD and CI both occurred in transitional seasons accompanied by large TCNs. Under warming backgrounds, positive TCNs increased CHD risk in patients younger than 65 years, and old people showed limited sensitivity. In the cooling periods, negative TCNs induced CHD risk in females and the elderly; the highest RR showed on lag 6 d. In particular, a same diurnal temperature decrease (e.g., - 2°C) induced greater RR (RR = 1.113, 95% CIs: 1.033-1.198) on old people during warming periods than cooling counterparts (RR = 1.055, 95% CIs: 1.011-1.100). Moreover, positive TCNs elevated CI risk regardless of background temperatures, and males were particularly vulnerable. Seasonal temperature trends modify TCN-cardiovascular morbidity associations significantly, which may provide new insights into the health impact of unstable weathers.

Differences in Comorbidities Between Women and Men Treated with Elective Repair for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVES

Elective abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) repair is performed to prevent rupture. For reasons as yet unknown, the 30-day mortality risk after elective AAA repair is higher in women than in men. We hypothesised that this higher risk might be related to differences in comorbidity.

METHODS

Systematic review (PROSPERO CRD42019133314) according to PRISMA guidelines. A search in the EMBASE/MEDLINE/CENTRAL databases identified 1870 studies that included patients who underwent elective AAA repair (final search February 17^th, 2021). Ultimately, 28 studies were included and all reported comorbidities were categorised into 17 comorbidity groups. Additionally, 15 groups of clearly defined comorbidities were used for sensitivity analysis. For both groups, meta-analyses of each comorbidity were performed to estimate the difference in pooled prevalence between women and men with a random effects model.

RESULTS

When analysing data of all reported comorbidities (17 groups), smoking [risk difference (RD) 11%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 4-18], diabetes (RD 3%, 95% CI 2-4), ischaemic heart disease (RD 12%, 95% CI 8-16), arrhythmia (RD 3%, 95% CI 0.4-5), liver disease (RD 0.1%, 95% CI 0.01-0.2), and cancer (RD 3%, 95% CI 2-4)) were less prevalent in women, whereas, hypertension (RD 4%, 95% CI 3-6) and pulmonary disease (RD 4%, 95% CI 3-5) were more prevalent in women. At the time of surgery women were significantly older than men (74.9 years versus 72.4; mean difference 2.4 years (95% CI 2.1-2.7)). In the sensitivity analysis of 15 comorbidity groups, the same comorbidities remained significantly different between women and men, except smoking and arrhythmia. Women had a higher mortality risk than men (RD 1%, 95% CI 1-2).

CONCLUSIONS

Although women undergoing elective AAA repair have fewer baseline comorbidities than men, their 30-day mortality risk is higher. In-depth studies on the cause of death in women after elective AAA repair are needed to explain this discrepancy in mortality.

Electrocardiographic Risk Markers of Cardiac Death: Gender Differences in the General Population

Background

Cardiac death is one of the leading causes of death and sudden cardiac death (SCD) is estimated to cause approximately 50% of cardiac deaths. Men have a higher cardiac mortality than women. Consequently, the mechanisms and risk markers of cardiac mortality are not as well defined in women as they are in men.

Aim

The aim of the study was to assess the prognostic value and possible gender differences of SCD risk markers of standard 12-lead electrocardiogram in three large general population samples.

Methods

The standard 12-lead electrocardiographic (ECG) markers were analyzed from three different Finnish general population samples including total of 20,310 subjects (49.9% women, mean age 44.8 ± 8.7 years). The primary endpoint was cardiac death, and SCD and all-cause mortality were secondary endpoints. The interaction effect between women and men was assessed for each ECG variable.

Results

During the follow-up (7.7 ± 1.2 years), a total of 883 deaths occurred (24.5% women, p < 0.001). There were 296 cardiac deaths (13.9% women, p < 0.001) and 149 SCDs (14.8% women, p < 0.001). Among those who had died due to cardiac cause, women had more often a normal electrocardiogram compared to men (39.0 vs. 27.5%, p = 0.132). After adjustments with common cardiovascular risk factors and the population sample, the following ECG variables predicted the primary endpoint in men: left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) with strain pattern (p < 0.001), QRS duration > 110 ms (p < 0.001), inferior or lateral T-wave inversion (p < 0.001) and inferolateral early repolarization (p = 0.033). In women none of the variables remained significant predictors of cardiac death in multivariable analysis, but LVH, QTc ≥ 490 ms and T-wave inversions predicted SCD (p < 0.047 and 0.033, respectively). In the interaction analysis, LVH (HR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.2–4.9; p = 0.014) was stronger predictor of primary endpoint in women than in men.

Conclusion

Several standard ECG variables provide independent information on the risk of cardiac mortality in men but not in women. LVH and T-wave inversions predict SCD also in women.

Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Women: Closing the Gap

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death in women globally. Younger women (<55 years of age) who experience MI are less likely to receive guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT), have a greater likelihood of readmission and have higher rates of mortality than similarly aged men. Women have been under-represented in CVD clinical trials, which limits the generalisability of results into practice. Available evidence indicates that women derive a similar benefit as men from secondary prevention pharmacological therapies, such as statins, ezetimibe, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors, icosapent ethyl, antiplatelet therapy, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Women are less likely to be enrolled in cardiac rehabilitation programs than men. Mitigating risk and improving outcomes is dependent on proper identification of CVD in women, using appropriate GDMT and continuing to promote lifestyle modifications. Future research directed at advancing our understanding of CVD in women will allow us to further develop and tailor CVD guidelines appropriate by sex and to close the gap between diagnoses, treatment and mortality.

Gender medicine: Lessons from COVID-19 and other medical conditions for designing health policy

Gender-specific differences in the prevalence, incidence, comorbidities, prognosis, severity, risk factors, drug-related aspects and outcomes of various medical conditions are well documented. We present a literature review on the extent to which research in this field has developed over the years, and reveal gaps in gender-sensitive awareness between the clinical portrayal and the translation into gender-specific treatment regimens, guidelines and into gender-oriented preventive strategies and health policies. Subsequently, through the lens of gender, we describe these domains in detail for four selected medical conditions: Asthma, obesity and overweight, chronic kidney disease and coronavirus disease 2019. As some of the key gender differences become more apparent during adolescence, we focus on this developmental stage. Finally, we propose a model which is based on three influential issues: (1) Investigating gender-specific medical profiles of related health conditions, rather than a single disease; (2) The dynamics of gender disparities across developmental stages; and (3) An integrative approach which takes into account additional risk factors (ethnicity, socio-demographic variables, minorities, lifestyle habits etc.). Increasing the awareness of gender-specific medicine in daily practice and in tailored guidelines, already among adolescents, may reduce inequities, facilitate the prediction of future trends and properly address the characteristics and needs of certain subpopulations within each gender.

Sex- and Gender-specific Analysis in Orthopaedic Studies

BACKGROUND

Orthopaedic studies have reported the prevalence of injuries and outcomes after treatment in men and women patients, and although these differences have been recognized, few studies have evaluated for gender-specific injury patterns, disease progression, and treatment outcomes. A thorough understanding of gender-related differences is important to better individualize treatment and improve outcomes.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

In this study, we sought (1) to determine the proportion of studies published in six orthopaedic journals that provided sex- or gender-specific analyses in 2016 and whether a difference was found in outcomes between men and women and (2) to evaluate whether this proportion varied across several orthopaedic subspecialty journals or between general orthopaedic journals and subspecialty journals.

METHODS

Six leading orthopaedic surgery journals were selected for review, including two general orthopaedic journals (Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery and Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research®) and four subspecialty journals (American Journal of Sports Medicine, Journal of Arthroplasty, Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery, and Spine). Journal issues published in the even-numbered months of 2016 were reviewed for clinical randomized controlled, cohort, and case-control studies in which women were a part of the study population. A total of 712 studies evaluating 24,607,597 patients met the criteria and were included in our review of publications from 2016. The selected studies were stratified based on whether gender was a variable in a multifactorial statistical model. Outcomes of interest included the proportion of patients who were women and the presence or absence of a gender-specific analysis. These endpoints were compared between journals.

RESULTS

Overall, 55% (13,565,773 of 24,607,597) of patients analyzed in these studies were women. Only 34% (241 of 712) of the studies published in 2016 included gender as variable in a multifactorial statistical model. Of these, 39% (93 of 241) demonstrated a difference in the outcomes between patients who were men and women. The Journal of Arthroplasty had the greatest percentage of patients who were women (60%, 9,251,068 of 15,557,187) and the American Journal of Sports Medicine had the lowest (44%, 1,027,857 of 2,357,139; p < 0.001). Orthopaedic subspecialty journals tended to include a greater percentage of women (54%) than did general orthopaedic journals (50%; p = 0.04).

CONCLUSION

Currently, it is unclear what percentage of published orthopaedic studies should include a gender-specific analysis. In the current study, more than one-third of publications that performed a gender-specific analysis demonstrated a difference in outcomes between men and women, thereby emphasizing the need to determine when such an analysis is warranted.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Future studies should aim to determine when a gender-specific analysis is necessary to improve the management of orthopaedic injuries in men and women. It is important for investigators at the individual-study level to look for every opportunity to ensure that both men's and women's health needs are met by performing appropriate by-sex and by-gender analyses, but not to perform them when they are unnecessary or inappropriate.

Sex/Gender-Specific Imbalance in CVD: Could Physical Activity Help to Improve Clinical Outcome Targeting CVD Molecular Mechanisms in Women?

In the last two decades, new insights have been gained regarding sex/gender-related differences in cardiovascular disease (CVD). CVD represents the leading cause of death worldwide in both men and women, accounting for at least one-third of all deaths in women and half of deaths in women over 50 years in developing countries. Important sex-related differences in prevalence, presentation, management, and outcomes of different CVDs have been recently discovered, demonstrating sex/gender-specific pathophysiologic features in the presentation and prognosis of CVD in men and women. A large amount of evidence has highlighted the role of sex hormones in protecting women from CVDs, providing an advantage over men that is lost when women reach the menopause stage. This hormonal-dependent shift of sex-related CVD risk consequently affects the overall CVD epidemiology, particularly in light of the increasing trend of population aging. The benefits of physical activity have been recognized for a long time as a powerful preventive approach for both CVD prevention and aging-related morbidity control. Exercise training is indeed a potent physiological stimulus, which reduces primary and secondary cardiovascular events. However, the underlying mechanisms of these positive effects, including from a sex/gender perspective, still need to be fully elucidated. The aim of this work is to provide a review of the evidence linking sex/gender-related differences in CVD, including sex/gender-specific molecular mediators, to explore whether sex- and gender-tailored physical activity may be used as an effective tool to prevent CVD and improve clinical outcomes in women.

Trends in Guideline-Driven Revascularization in Diabetic Patients with Multivessel Coronary Heart Disease

In diabetes patients with chronic ≥3 vessel disease, coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) holds a class I recommendation in the American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) 2011 guidelines, and this classification has not changed to date. Much of the literature has focused upon whether CABG or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) produces better outcomes; there is a paucity of data comparing the odds of receiving these procedures. A secondary analysis was conducted in a de-identified database comprised of 30,482 patients satisfying the entry criteria. Odds of occurrence (CABG, PCI) were determined as the binary dependent variable in period 1, (17 October 2009 through 31 December 2011), and period 2 (1 January 2013 through 16 March 2015), before and after the 2011 guidelines, while controlling for gender, ethnicity/race, and ischemic heart disease as covariates. The odds of performing CABG rather than PCI in period 2 were not statistically significantly different than in period 1 (p = 0.400). The logistic regression model chi-square statistic was statistically significant, with χ₂ (7) = 308.850, p < 0.0001. The Wald statistic showed that ethnicity/race (African American, Caucasian, Hispanic and Other), gender, and heart disease contributed significantly to the prediction model with p < 0.05, but ethnicity ‘Unknown’ did not. The odds of CABG versus PCI in period 2 were 0.98 times those in period 1 95% confidence interval (CI) = (0.925, 1.032), statistically controlling for covariates. There was no significant rise in the odds of undergoing a CABG among this dataset of high-risk patients with diabetes and multivessel coronary heart disease. Modern practice has evolved regarding patient choice and additional variables that impact the final revascularization method employed. The degree to which odds of occurrence of procedures are a reliable surrogate for provider compliance with guidelines remains uncertain.