2022 Bern Consensus Statement on Shoulder Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Return to Sport for Athletes at All Participation Levels

Shoulder MRI parameters in anticipating anterior shoulder dislocation: Are they a reliable and reproducible tool in clinical practice?

BACKGROUND

Anterior shoulder dislocation (ASD) is a frequently observed musculoskeletal injury that is often encountered in the context of sports activities or as a result of trauma. Several magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) parameters have been previously investigated for the purpose of characterizing the anatomical features, which could potentially be responsible for the episodes of instability. These measurements have the potential to identify patients who are susceptible to dislocation. Consequently, ensuring the reliability and consistency of these measurements is crucial in the diagnosis and the management of athletic or traumatic shoulder injuries.

METHODS

A group of four students, who had no previous experience in reading MRI series, were selected to perform radiographic measurements on specific parameters of MRI scans. These parameters were glenoid version, glenoid depth, glenoid width, humeral head diameter, humeral containing angle, and the ratio of humeral head diameter to glenoid diameter. The four participants conducted two distinct readings on a total of 28 sets of shoulder MRI scans. Simultaneously, the aforementioned measures were assessed by a consultant shoulder surgeon.

RESULTS

A total of 1512 measurements were categorized into nine sets: eight from students' measurements (two per student) and one from the consultant. Intra-rater reliability assessed by the intra-class correlation (ICC) test indicated excellent or good reliability for all parameters (p < 0.05), with glenoid depth showing the highest (0.925) and humeral-containing angles the lowest (0.675) ICC value. Inter-rater correlation, also evaluated using ICC, demonstrated strong correlation (p < 0.05), with glenoid diameter having the highest ICC score (0.935) and glenoid depth the lowest (0.849). Agreement analysis, expressed by Cohen's Kappa test, revealed substantial agreement (p < 0.05) for all parameters, with humeral head diameter having the highest agreement (0.90) and humeral-containing angle the lowest (0.73).

CONCLUSION

In this study, intra- and inter-rater MRI parameters are substantially concordant. Credibility comes from these reliability and agreement analyses' statistical significance. Glenoid diameter and depth are the most reliable intrarater and interrater, respectively. Best agreement was with the humeral-containing angle. These data demonstrate repeatability and clinical relevance.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV.

50 Years of Research on the Psychology of Sport Injury: A Consensus Statement

Factors influencing sport injury risk, rehabilitation outcomes, and return to sport processes have been the focus in various research disciplines (sports medicine, psychology and sociology). One discipline, with over 50 years of scholarship, is the psychology of sport injury. Despite the research in this field, there is no evidence-based consensus to inform professional practice. The aim of this original and timely consensus statement is to summarise psychological sport injury research and provide consensus recommendations for sport practitioners seeking to implement psychological principles into clinical practice. A total of seven experts with extensive experience outlined the consensus objectives and identified three psychology of sport injury sub-domains: risk, rehabilitation and return to sport. The researchers, grouped in pairs, prepared initial drafts of assigned sub-domains. The group met in Stockholm, and the three texts were merged into a draft and revised in an iterative process. Stress responses are the strongest psychological risk factor for acute injuries. Intra- and interpersonal factors, as well as sociocultural factors, are demonstrated psychosocial risk factors for overuse injuries. Stress management and mindfulness interventions to prevent injuries have been successfully implemented. The rehabilitation process may influence athlete's cognitive, emotional, and behavioural responses. Social support, mindfulness, acceptance-based practices, and cognitive-behavioural based intervention programs reduce negative reactions. Return to sport includes various stages and different trajectories. Returning athletes typically experience concerns regarding competence, autonomy, and relatedness. It is recommended that athletes focus on the physical, technical, and psychological demands of their sport as they progress to increasingly intense activities. Interdisciplinary collaboration (e.g., sports medicine and psychology) would be beneficial in enhancing clinical practice and improving athlete outcomes.

Models of care for musculoskeletal shoulder pain in spinal cord injury: A scoping review

CONTEXT

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a neurological condition that significantly impacts a person's lifestyle, health and well-being. Many individuals with SCI experience secondary musculoskeletal shoulder pain. This scoping review examines the current research on the diagnosis and management of shoulder pain in SCI.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this Scoping Review was (1) to chart peer-reviewed literature regarding the diagnosis and management of shoulder pain as it relates to SCI and (2) identify gaps in this body of literature to inform future research priorities.

METHODS

Six electronic databases were searched from inception until April 2022. In addition, reviewers scanned the reference lists of identified articles. Articles from peer-reviewed sources that reported diagnostic or management procedures for musculoskeletal shoulder conditions within the SCI population were considered and 1679 articles were identified. Title and abstract screening, full text review, and data extraction were undertaken by two independent reviewers.

RESULTS

Eighty seven articles were included, covering diagnosis or management of shoulder pain in SCI.

CONCLUSION

Whilst the most commonly reported diagnostic procedures and management strategies reflect contemporary practice for shoulder pain, the entire body of literature demonstrates inconsistencies in methodologies. In places, the literature continues to perceive value in procedures inconsistent with best practice. These findings encourage researchers to pursue the development of robust models of care for musculoskeletal shoulder pain in SCI using a collaborative and integrated approach, combining best practice for musculoskeletal shoulder pain alongside clinical expertise in the management of SCI.

Translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and validation of the Turkish version of the shoulder instability-return to sport (SI-RSI) after injury scale

To translate and culturally adapt the shoulder instability-return to sport after injury (SI-RSI) scale into Turkish (SI-RSI-Tr) and examine the psychometric properties of the Turkish version of athletes following a traumatic shoulder instability. The SI-RSI was translated into Turkish using Beaton guidelines. Sixty-nine patients with shoulder instability completed the translated SI-RSI, Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI), the Tampa Scale of Kinesiophobia (TSK), and the Walch-Duplay Scores. We analysed the internal consistency, agreement, reliability, and validity of the SI-RSI-Tr. The SI-RSI-Tr demonstrated excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92), test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.95), and feasibility with no ceiling or floor effect. SI-RSI-Tr correlated with WOSI total score (r = -0.824, p < 0.001), its subscales: WOSI-physical (r = -0.683, p < 0.001), WOSI-sports (r = -0.832, p < 0.001), WOSI-lifestyle (r = -0.739, p < 0.001), and WOSI-emotions (r = -0.734, p < 0.001) respectively), Walch-Duplay (r = 0.840, p < 0.001) and TSK (r = -0.828, p < 0.001) scores. The Turkish SI-RSI is a reliable, internally consistent, and valid tool for athletes with shoulder instability. Researchers and clinicians could safely use the SIRSI-Tr to evaluate the shoulder-specific psychological factors on return to sports following an episode of shoulder instability.

A Dual Inertial Measurement Unit System for Classifying Standard Overhead Drill Movements in Elite Women's Water Polo

INTRODUCTION

Water polo upper limb external load monitoring cannot be currently measured accurately because of technological and methodological challenges. This is problematic as large fluctuations in overhead movement volume and intensity may affect performance and alter injury risk. Inertial measurement units (IMU) and machine learning techniques have been shown to accurately classify overhead movements in other sports. We investigated the model accuracy and class precision, sensitivity, and specificity of IMU and machine learning techniques to classify standard overhead drill movements in elite women's water polo.

METHODS

Ten women's water polo players performed standard drills of swimming, blocking, low-intensity throwing and high-intensity throwing under training conditions. Athletes wore two IMU: one on the upper back and the other on the distal forearm. Each movement was videoed and coded to a standard overhead drill movement. IMU and coded video data were merged to verify the IMU-detected activity classification of each movement to that of the video. Data were partitioned into a training and a test set and used to form a decision tree algorithm. Model accuracy and class precision, sensitivity, and specificity were assessed.

RESULTS

IMU resultant acceleration and angular velocity values displayed drill-specific values. A total of 194 activities were identified by the model in the test set, with 8 activities being incorrectly classified. Model accuracy was 95.88%. Percentage class precision, sensitivity, and specificity were as follows: blocking (96.15, 86.21, 99.39), high-intensity throwing (100, 100, 100), low-intensity throwing (93.48, 93.48, 97.97), and swimming (94.81, 98.65, 96.67).

CONCLUSIONS

IMU and machine learning techniques can accurately classify standard overhead drill movements in elite women's water polo.

Reliability of a handball specific strength test battery and the association with sprint and throwing performance in young handball players

BACKGROUND

A greater motivation for coaches to be more involved in assessment could be the development of specific strength tests closer to specific handball tasks. Therefore, the aims were to determine the reliability of a handball specific strength test battery in young handball players using a functional electromechanical dynamometer (FEMD) and to evaluate the association between the strength test battery and performance measurements.

METHODS

Thirty-two young handball players (25% males and 75% females) performed a repeated-measurement design over four weeks. The players conducted one session per week, with each measurement consisting of two isometric tests to obtain isometric peak force, and four incremental tests. Moreover, performance handball tests (sprint and throwing velocity [TV]) were recorded.

RESULTS

The reliability of the whole handball specific strength tests was very high for the peak and mean strength (ICC=0.70-0.85; CV=8.49-13.99; SEM=0.44-0.67 kg). The step forward had a moderate association with 5 to 10 meters' time. The highest correlation between TVmean was found with the peak strength of standing lift and between TVpeak with peak strength of unilateral throw. The sprint total time could be explained by Body Mass Index and peak strength of the standing lift in the 40% and the TVpeak could be explained by arm span and mean strength of the standing lift in the 68%.

CONCLUSIONS

The high reliability for all exercises and the significant correlation with handball performance (sprint time and TV) allow us to include these tests in handball team evaluation and training.

Criteria, Timing, and Factors Associated With Return to Competitive Sport After Rotator Cuff Surgery

Rotator cuff pathology in competitive athletes is common and may produce chronic symptoms and joint disability, impairing sports participation and leading to premature retirement. Athletes are a high-functioning patient population with unique characteristics. Decision-making for return to sport is a complex and multifactorial process. Literature is sparse and does not provide precise guidelines to assist physicians to make the right decision. This review aimed to highlight factors affecting outcome, timing, and criteria for return to competitive sport after rotator cuff surgery to help physicians to clearly counsel athletes and make high-quality decisions for return to sport.

Rehabilitation of the painful shoulder

Managing the painful shoulder in overhead athletes can be difficult because of a lack of time-loss injuries in overhead sports and focusing primarily on either pathoanatomic causes or movement impairments. Although managing the painful shoulder can be challenging, the combination of identifying pathoanatomic causes with movement impairments can provide a more focused rehabilitation approach directed at the causes of shoulder pain. Understanding the potential influence of scapular positioning as well as mobility and/or strength impairments on shoulder pain can help clinicians develop more directed rehabilitation programs. Furthermore, sports-specific methods such as long toss or the use of weighted balls for achieving physiological or performance-based gains have limited empirical evidence regarding their clinical and performance-based benefits, which may impede the rehabilitation process. Applying a comprehensive evaluation approach prior to and throughout the treatment process can assist clinicians with selecting the most appropriate treatment based on patient need. Reconsidering traditional treatments based on existing evidence may help refine the treatment process for overhead athletes with shoulder pain.

The Closed Kinetic Chain Upper Extremity Stability Test (CKCUEST) Performance in Elite Team Handball Players Playing with Shoulder Pain, Previous Pain, or No Pain

Background

Physical therapists use tests that could determine strength and weaknesses of the shoulder for overhead throwing athletes to enhance performance, prevent injury, and safely progress rehabilitation. The Closed Kinetic Chain Upper Extremity Stability Test (CKCUEST) has been proposed to assess muscular capacity and dynamic shoulder stability in overhead athletes, which could provide information to determine a risk of injury.

Purpose

To investigate if the CKCUEST is an appropriate test to implement within team elite handball players to evaluate dynamic shoulder stability across sexes and in the screening of shoulder pain.

Study design

Cross-sectional study.

Methods

Elite team handball players were recruited and performed the CKCUEST from which three different scores (raw, touch, and power) were calculated and compared among handball players playing with shoulder pain, previous pain, and no pain.

Results

A total of 106 handball players were included: 49 females (1.74±0.03 m, 70.4±6.7 kg, and 22±4.9 years) and 57 males (1.90±0.08 m, 91.6±11.4 kg, and 22±5.4 years), A significant difference was found between the female and male handball players when comparing all three CKCUEST scores (p<0.01). No significant differences were found in the CKCUEST scores among the three different groups (F≤1.23, p≥0.30, η2≤0.03). Among the female participants, no significant differences were found between performing the CKCUEST and the modified test. A significant correlation was found between height and the power score for men (r=0.661, p≤0.001) and women (r=0.434, p=0.01).

Conclusion

A comparison of scores across sexes appears unsuitable, due to the possible positive influence of height on the final score. But within the female group, performances of the CKCUEST and the modified CKCUEST were comparable. Additionally, the CKCUEST was not able to differentiate among elite handball players who are playing with shoulder pain, previous shoulder pain, and no pain.

Level of evidence

3.

Rehabilitation following shoulder arthroscopic stabilisation surgery: A survey of UK practice

Background

Optimal rehabilitation following arthroscopic shoulder stabilisation for traumatic anterior instability is unknown. The purpose of this study was to establish current UK practice for this patient group.

Methods

A self-administered online questionnaire was developed and distributed to UK surgeons and physiotherapists.

Results

138 responses were received. Routine immobilisation was reported in 79.7% of responses with a cross-body sling being the preferred position (63.4%). Duration of immobilisation and timescales to initiate movement were highly variable. Return to light work was advised when patients felt able (25.4%) or after 6 weeks (26.1%). 58.7% recommended waiting for 12 weeks to return to manual work. 56% recommended non-contact sport could be resumed after 12 weeks. For contact sport, recommendations varied from 6 weeks (3.8%) to 6 months (5.8%). Psychological readiness was the most frequently cited criteria for return to play (58.6%). Factors such as hyperlaxity (40.6%), age (32.6%) and kinesiophobia (28.3%) were not considered as relevant as reported quality of surgical fixation (50%).

Conclusion

There is no clear consensus regarding optimal post-operative rehabilitation following arthroscopic shoulder stabilisation. Further work is required to establish high value, personalised pathways for this patient group.

Upper Limb Strength and Performance Deficits after Glenohumeral Joint Stabilization Surgery in Contact and Collision Athletes

PURPOSE

The primary aim was to identify and quantify differences in interlimb asymmetry magnitudes across a battery of upper extremity strength and performance tests at 4 and 6 months after glenohumeral joint stabilization surgery shoulder stabilization in contact and collision athletes compared with an un-injured group. A secondary aim was to investigate if identified asymmetry magnitudes changed from 4 to 6 months after glenohumeral joint stabilization surgery. The third aim was to explore associations within the different performance and strength variables.

METHODS

Fifty-six male contact and collision sport athletes who had had undergone unilateral glenohumeral joint stabilization were tested at 4 and 6 months after surgery. An un-injured control group ( n = 39 for upper extremity performance tests, n = 47 for isokinetic dynamometry) were tested on a single occasion. Three upper extremity force platform-based performance tests and angle-specific concentric internal and external isokinetic shoulder rotational strength were assessed, and interlimb asymmetries were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

At 4 months after surgery, the glenohumeral joint stabilization group demonstrated significantly higher absolute interlimb asymmetry values than the un-injured group for almost all the performance test variables. In the ballistic upper-body performance tests, the glenohumeral joint stabilization group achieved only half the body elevation reached by the un-injured (counter-movement push-up jump height ( η2 = 0.50) and press-jump jump height ( η2 = 0.39)). At 6 months after surgery, absolute interlimb asymmetries reduced for the performance test variables, but some asymmetry persisted. The glenohumeral joint stabilization group had significantly greater absolute interlimb asymmetries for five out the eight isokinetic variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Contact and collision athletes who may be cleared to return to sport at 4 to 6 months after glenohumeral joint stabilization surgery shoulder stabilization continue to demonstrate upper limb strength and performance deficits when compared with their un-injured limb and their un-injured counterparts.

Test-Retest Reliability of 3 Specific Strength Tests in Professional Handball Players

CONTEXT

Current devices to assess strength performance in handball may not be sufficiently sports-specific and reliable methods. Functional electromechanical dynamometry is a new technology that allows the development of accurate strength tests in athletes.

PURPOSE

To determine the absolute and relative reliability and to compare the reliability of the right and left side, and mean and peak force of 3 specific strength tests in handball players with a functional electromechanical dynamometer: unilateral pullover, standing lift, and step forward.

METHODS

Fourteen male handball players of the first Spanish division (28.79 [4.81] y; 10.38 [4.63] y of professional experience) performed a repeated-measurement design. Three testing sessions were performed (one per week). The first measurement consisted of 4 isometric tests (right and left unilateral pullover, and right and left standing lift) to obtain isometric peak force, and in the second and third sessions, 6 incremental tests until failure (right and left unilateral pullover, and right and left standing lift, right and left step forward) were performed.

RESULTS

The tests provided high reliability or acceptable reliability for mean and peak strength of unilateral pullover, standing lift and step forward (intraclass correlation coefficient = .83-.97; coefficient of variation = 3.90-11.57). Effect side was negligible in any of the parameters, except for a small effect side in the left peak force for unilateral pullover and a small effect side on the left side for a step forward. Significant differences in reliability (coefficient of variation ratio > 1.15) were found between the right and left sides and peak and mean force in all exercises except peak force in unilateral pullover and step forward.

CONCLUSION

These results confirm that the tests could be applied to assess physical performance in handball at the same time as regular gym training. Moreover, this is an excellent opportunity to individualize the player's weekly load.

Blood Flow Restriction Training in Patients With Rotator Cuff Tendinopathy: A Randomized, Assessor-Blinded, Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effects of low-load blood flow restriction (BFR) training on shoulder muscle thickness, rotator cuff (RC) strength, and shoulder symptoms in patients with RC tendinopathy.

DESIGN

A randomized, assessor-blinded, controlled trial.

SETTINGS

Physiotherapy clinic at a university.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-eight patients were randomized into an 8-week (2 times/week) shoulder rehabilitation, that is, BFR or non-BFR group.

INTERVENTIONS

BFR training.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

(1) RC, deltoid, scapula retractor, and biceps muscle thicknesses and shoulder internal rotation (IR) and external rotation (ER) strengths. (2) Shoulder pain/function.

RESULTS

The BFR group had a greater increase in biceps muscle thickness ( P = 0.002) and shoulder IR strength at 60 degrees/s ( P = 0.040) than the non-BFR group. No differences between the 2 groups were observed in other measurements. Significant improvements in supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and scapula retractor muscle thicknesses and in shoulder ER and IR strengths were observed over time in both the groups (all P < 0 .05). Also, shoulder pain decreased and shoulder function increased over time in both the groups (all P < 0 .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Low-load BFR training resulted in a greater increase in biceps thickness and shoulder IR strength compared with the non-BFR group in patients with RC tendinopathy. However, there was no superiority of either exercise training regarding the RC, scapula retractor, deltoid muscle thicknesses, or improvements in shoulder ER strength and shoulder pain/function.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NAME AND REGISTRATION NUMBER

The study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov named Blood Flow Restriction Training in Patients with Shoulder Pain and the registration number is NCT04333784.

The Risk Factors and Preventive Strategies of Poor Knee Functions and Osteoarthritis after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: A Narrative Review

Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) is the standard surgical treatment for ACL injury, which typically uses a graft to replace the torn ligament in the knee that uses small incisions with minimally invasive surgery. The optimal knee functions following ACLR depend on rehabilitation processes before and after the surgery. Knee function is the ability of the knee to perform various types of functional movements like walking, squatting, running, jumping, and pivoting where patients expect to achieve maximum knee function or at least more than 80% of its initial condition before the injury to avoid being categorized as poor knee function after ACLR. Patients use patient-reported outcome measures to collect data on their health status and quality of life after ACLR. Post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) is a type of OA that manifests in local cartilage injury caused by chondrocyte death, and matrix dispersion occurs following a joint injury like ACL injury. Gender, time from injury to surgery, and graft type were considered as risk factors for poor knee function after ACLR, while overweight, meniscus tear, and cartilage defect as risk factors for PTOA. However, age is an internal risk factor for both poor knee function and PTOA following ACLR. This review suggests several strategies to prevent both conditions, including a pre-operative program, comprehensive rehabilitation, body weight control, and return to sport (RTS) consideration based on physical capacity, proper time, and psychological readiness.

Examination of the validity of the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport (I-PRRS) scale in male professional football players: A worldwide study of 29 professional teams

Perceived confidence is an important dimension of an athlete's psychological readiness to return-to-play. However, there is no established and validated tool to evaluate confidence in professional football. This study aimed to provide preliminary evaluation of the internal structure of the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return-to-Sport scale (I-PRRS) in a cohort of injured male professional footballers. Over an 18-month period, 29 teams from 17 leagues participated. Players sustaining injuries eliciting ≥ 3 weeks' time-loss were recruited. Cross culturally adapted to 4 further languages, the I-PRRS was administered on two occasions: 1) day before returning-to-training and 2) day before returning-to-match-play. In total, 113 injuries were recorded with 96 completed I-PRRS data sets collected. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated the I-PRRS was a unidimensional scale, with all items measuring the same construct. The scale demonstrated good internal consistency (ω = .88). When examining longitudinal invariance of the I-PRRS across administration time-points, indices of model fit supported scalar invariance. There was preliminary evidence of good internal structure for the I-PRRS in professional male footballers. However, before further research involving the I-PRRS can be endorsed, efforts to confirm or refute empirical developments pertaining to psychological readiness are necessary.

Shoulder, Trunk, and Hip Sagittal Plane Kinematics during Stand-Up Paddle Boarding

Stand-up paddle boarding (SUP) as both a competitive and recreational sport has grown in popularity over the last decade. Better understanding paddling kinematics is beneficial for both injury prevention and informing coaching practices in this growing sport. The purpose of this study was to analyze sagittal plane kinematics during both standing and kneeling paddling postures commonly adopted by injury-free, recreational SUP participants. Eighteen recreational SUP participants (seven males/eleven females) were asked to complete a series of paddling tasks on a SUP ergometer in two postures, during which kinematic data were acquired. Sagittal plane kinematic data were analyzed for joint excursion, or range of motion used, while paddling on both sides of the body in each posture. Analysis of variance was used to compare joint excursions across tasks. There were no significant differences in hip or trunk sagittal plant excursion between postures. However, there was significantly greater sagittal plane excursion at the shoulder in the kneeling as compared to the standing posture with the shoulder opposite the paddling side demonstrating the greatest total excursion. These results help establish the parameters of the paddling technique currently in use among injury-free SUP participants and may be used in the future to inform coaching practices.

Posterior Shoulder Instability in Tennis Players: Aetiology, Classification, Assessment and Management

Background

Micro-traumatic posterior shoulder instability (PSI) is an often missed and misdiagnosed pathology presenting in tennis players. The aetiology of micro-traumatic PSI in tennis players is multifactorial, including congenital factors, loss of strength and motor control, and sport-specific repetitive microtrauma. Repetitive forces placed on the dominant shoulder, particularly combinations of flexion, horizontal adduction, and internal rotation contribute to the microtrauma. These positions are characteristic for kick serves, backhand volleys, and the follow-through phase of forehands and serves. The aim of this clinical commentary is to present an overview of the aetiology, classification, clinical presentation, and treatment of micro-traumatic PSI, with a particular focus on tennis players.

Level of Evidence

5.

Return to Sports Following Shoulder Injury: Clinical Evaluation, Isokinetic, and Functional Testing

ABSTRACT

The shoulder is commonly injured in overhead sports. This is associated with a high degree of mobility at the expense of stability, sports specific demands, high volume or intensity of practice and competition, biomechanical deficits, and poor technique. Following injury, the return to competition process includes nonsurgical or surgical treatment, comprehensive rehabilitation, and a structured return to sports program. The return to sports continuum is divided into phases which include return to practice of the sport, return to competition at a lower level or with reduced performance, and return to expected performance. Components of the return to sports decision include clinical evaluation of physical and psychological readiness, measurement of muscle strength using isokinetic tests, evaluation of overhead functional tasks, and progression in a supervised interval throwing program. The evidence for the effectiveness of return to sports programs following shoulder injury is limited but evolving and is an area that will merit continued investigation.

Reliability of Upper Extremity Functional Performance Tests for Overhead Sports Activities

Background

There is lack of consensus on which tests, particularly upper extremity functional performance tests (FPT) that should be used for clinical decision making to progress a patient through a rehabilitation program or criteria for return to sport (RTS). Consequently, there is a need for tests with good psychometric properties that can be administered with minimal equipment and time.

Purpose

(1) To establish the intersession reliability of several open kinetic chain FPT in healthy young adults with a history of overhead sport participation. (2) To examine the intersession reliability of the limb symmetry indices (LSI) from each test.

Study Design

Test-retest reliability, single cohort study.

Methods

Forty adults (20 males, 20 females) completed four upper extremity FPT during two data collection sessions three to seven days apart: 1) prone medicine ball drop test 90°shoulder abduction (PMBDT 90°), 2) prone medicine ball drop test 90°shoulder abduction/90° elbow flexion (PMBDT 90°-90°), 3) half-kneeling medicine ball rebound test (HKMBRT), 4) seated single arm shot put test (SSASPT). Measures of systematic bias, absolute reliability and relative reliability were computed between the sessions for both the original test scores and LSI.

Results

Except for the SSASPT, all tests demonstrated significant (p ≤ 0.030) improvements in performance during the second session. Generally, for the medicine ball drop/rebound tests, the absolute reliability was the highest (less random error) for the HKMBRT, next the PMBDT 90°followed by PMBDT 90°-90°. Excellent relative reliability existed for the PMBDT 90°, HKMBRT, and SSASPT, whereas fair to excellent relative reliability for the PMBDT 90°-90°. The SSASPT LSI revealed the highest relative and absolute reliability.

Conclusion

Two tests, HKMBRT and SSASPT demonstrated sufficient reliability; therefore, the authors' recommend those tests can be used for serial assessments to advance a patient through a rehabilitation program as well as criteria for progression to RTS.

Level of Evidence

3.

Objective and subjective measures to guide upper extremity return to sport testing: A modified Delphi survey

OBJECTIVE

To identify which subjective and objective tests do content experts utilize to help guide return to sport (RTS) decision making for an athlete after an upper extremity (UE) injury?

METHODS

A modified Delphi survey was utilized, including content experts in UE rehabilitation. Survey items were identified based on a literature review identifying current best evidence and practice for UE RTS decision making. Content experts (n = 52) were identified, having a minimum of 10 years of experience with rehabilitation of UE athletic injuries, and 5 years of experience using an UE RTS algorithm to guide decision making.

RESULTS

Expert consensus was achieved on a combination of tests utilized within an UE RTS algorithm: 1. Tissue healing time frame is an important consideration in RTS decision making; 2. Patient reported outcome measures should be utilized specifically, DASH and NPRS 3. Strength is measured by handheld dynamometer and is an important consideration. 4. ROM should be utilized and is an important consideration. 5. Physical performance tests utilized include: Closed Kinetic Chain Upper Extremity Stability test, Seated shot-put test and lower extremity/core tests.

CONCLUSIONS

This survey reached expert consensus on which subjective and objective measures to utilize to evaluate RTS readiness after UE injury.

[Return to throwing sports after upper extremity injury and overuse : A criteria-based approach using an ulnar collateral ligament injury as an example]

BACKGROUND

Uniform procedures for rehabilitation and follow-up treatment after injuries and surgeries at the upper extremity do not exist. Accordingly, only a few approaches for the follow-up treatment of instabilities of the elbow joint have been described.

OBJECTIVES

The authors show how rehabilitation before sport-specific training after rupture of the ulnar collateral ligament in a female handball player was objectivized and controlled using the results of functional tests.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The follow-up treatment of a semi-professional female handball player (aged 20) after rupture of the ulnar collateral ligament was objectivized and controlled using the return to activity algorithm. In addition to the comparisons with the values of the unaffected side, comparative results of 14 uninjured female handball players were used for guidance.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

The patient was able to participate fully in sport-specific training after 15 weeks and participate in her first competitive match after 20 weeks. On the affected side, she achieved a distance of 118% of her upper limb length on the medial reach of the upper quarter Y balance test and 63 valid contacts on the wall hop test. The values achieved at the end of rehabilitation were higher than the average values of the control group.

Development of a rugby shoulder function (RSF) questionnaire: An online Delphi study

OBJECTIVE

Develop a questionnaire to monitor symptoms of player perceived shoulder function/dysfunction.

DESIGN

3-Stage Online Delphi Study.

METHODS

Participants: surgeons, sports and exercise medics, academic researchers, strength and conditioning coaches, therapists and athletes split by level of expertise/experience. Stage-1: experts (n = 12) rated constructs/items from the steering group and made changes/proposed additional constructs/items. Stage-2: experts rated/amended new constructs/items from stage-1. Stage-3: experienced professionals (n = 25) rated/ranked constructs/items from stage 2. Consensus thresholds were defined per stage (≥50% agreement/4-5 rating on 1-5 Likert scale (stages 1-2), ≥68% agreement, and items ranked for perceived importance (stage-3)).

RESULTS

Stage-1, all four constructs (a. Activities of daily living, b. Range of motion, c. Strength and conditioning, d. Sports specific training and competition) and 26/42 original items achieved consensus. Twelve items were combined into five items. Four new items were also proposed. Stage-2, the combined items and three of the four new items achieved consensus. Stage-3 the four constructs and 22 items all achieved consensus.

CONCLUSIONS

Following a 3-stage online Delphi process, involving expert and experienced clinicians, practitioners and athletes, a new four construct, 22 item RSF questionnaire has been developed which can be used with rugby players, to monitor perceived shoulder performance and symptoms.

The Changing Landscape in Upper Limb Sports Rehabilitation and Injury Prevention

This editorial aims to feature authors who intend to submit their research to this Special Issue of Sports entitled "Clinical Advances in Upper Limb Sports Rehabilitation and Injury Prevention" in areas that need special consideration [...].

Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of common shoulder injuries in sport: grading the evidence - a statement paper commissioned by the Danish Society of Sports Physical Therapy (DSSF)

This statement paper summarises and appraises the evidence on diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of common shoulder injuries in sports. We systematically searched Medline and Embase. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation tool was applied to evaluate the overall quality of evidence.For diagnosis, we included 19 clinical tests from mixed populations. Tests for anterior instability, biceps-labrum complex injuries and full subscapularis rupture had high diagnostic accuracy (low to moderate quality of evidence).For prevention, the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center, the Shoulder Control, the FIFA 11+ shoulder injury prevention programmes, and a baseball-specific programme (range of motion, stretching, dynamic stability and strengthening exercises) showed moderate to large effect size in reducing the risk of shoulder injury compared with no intervention (very low to moderate quality of evidence).For treatment, a rehabilitation programme including stretching, ice packs, electrotherapy and compression, and strengthening exercises showed a large effect size in reducing pain and disability compared with no intervention in athletes with subacromial impingement syndrome (very low to moderate quality of evidence). For the treatment of supraspinatus tendinopathy, hyperthermia treatment (heating the skin to 38°C-40°C) resulted in large effect size in reducing pain and disability compared with ultrasound or pendular swinging and stretching exercises (moderate quality of evidence). Strengthening exercise alone or in combination with stretching exercises promoted a large effect in reducing shoulder pain (cohort studies, no comparators) (very low quality of evidence). The quality of evidence for most estimates was low to moderate, indicating that future high-quality research may alter our recommendations for clinical practice.

London International Consensus and Delphi study on hamstring injuries part 3: rehabilitation, running and return to sport

Hamstring injuries (HSIs) are the most common athletic injury in running and pivoting sports, but despite large amounts of research, injury rates have not declined in the last 2 decades. HSI often recur and many areas are lacking evidence and guidance for optimal rehabilitation. This study aimed to develop an international expert consensus for the management of HSI. A modified Delphi methodology and consensus process was used with an international expert panel, involving two rounds of online questionnaires and an intermediate round involving a consensus meeting. The initial information gathering round questionnaire was sent to 46 international experts, which comprised open-ended questions covering decision-making domains in HSI. Thematic analysis of responses outlined key domains, which were evaluated by a smaller international subgroup (n=15), comprising clinical academic sports medicine physicians, physiotherapists and orthopaedic surgeons in a consensus meeting. After group discussion around each domain, a series of consensus statements were prepared, debated and refined. A round 2 questionnaire was sent to 112 international hamstring experts to vote on these statements and determine level of agreement. Consensus threshold was set a priori at 70%. Expert response rates were 35/46 (76%) (first round), 15/35 (attendees/invitees to meeting day) and 99/112 (88.2%) for final survey round. Statements on rehabilitation reaching consensus centred around: exercise selection and dosage (78.8%-96.3% agreement), impact of the kinetic chain (95%), criteria to progress exercise (73%-92.7%), running and sprinting (83%-100%) in rehabilitation and criteria for return to sport (RTS) (78.3%-98.3%). Benchmarks for flexibility (40%) and strength (66.1%) and adjuncts to rehabilitation (68.9%) did not reach agreement. This consensus panel recommends individualised rehabilitation based on the athlete, sporting demands, involved muscle(s) and injury type and severity (89.8%). Early-stage rehab should avoid high strain loads and rates. Loading is important but with less consensus on optimum progression and dosage. This panel recommends rehabilitation progress based on capacity and symptoms, with pain thresholds dependent on activity, except pain-free criteria supported for sprinting (85.5%). Experts focus on the demands and capacity required for match play when deciding the rehabilitation end goal and timing of RTS (89.8%). The expert panellists in this study followed evidence on aspects of rehabilitation after HSI, suggesting rehabilitation prescription should be individualised, but clarified areas where evidence was lacking. Additional research is required to determine the optimal load dose, timing and criteria for HSI rehabilitation and the monitoring and testing metrics to determine safe rapid progression in rehabilitation and safe RTS. Further research would benefit optimising: prescription of running and sprinting, the application of adjuncts in rehabilitation and treatment of kinetic chain HSI factors.

Assessment of return to play after an acute shoulder injury: protocol for an explorative prospective observational German multicentre study

INTRODUCTION

To date, there is no valid single test or battery of tests for informing return-to-play (RTP) decisions following an acute shoulder injury. The purpose of this exploratory study is to evaluate a diagnostic test battery based on a Delphi consensus at the time of unrestricted return to team training after acute shoulder injury.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Data for this prospective multicentre cohort study are collected at two measurement time points: when the respective physician clears the patient for RTP (t1) and 12 months after RTP (t2). The study participants are 18-35 years old athletes participating at a professional level in the following team sports: handball, basketball, ice hockey, soccer, volleyball and American football. Maximum comparability will be ensured via uninjured matched pair teammates. To assess the subjective assessment of shoulder functioning and the athlete's readiness to RTP, patient-reported outcome measures (Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index, Quick-Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand, Psychological Readiness of Injured Athlete to Return to Sport and Shoulder Instability-Return to Sport after Injury) will be completed. After a medical check-up with a range of motion and anthropometric measurements as well as clinical tests, the participants will perform a structured warm-up protocol. The functional tests comprise handgrip strength, upper quarter Y-balance test, isometric strength, closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test, wall hop test, functional throwing performance index and the unilateral seated shot put test and isokinetic tests.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The results of this study will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications and scientific presentations at national and international conferences. Ethical approval was obtained through the Institutional Review Board of Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg (reference number: 2022-016).

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

DRKS00028265.

Rehabilitation after Shoulder Instability Surgery

Shoulder instability can occur in any direction and presents across a broad spectrum including traumatic dislocations, repetitive microinstability events or subluxations, and global joint laxity. The development of pain, functional decline, and articular pathologic condition is a multifaceted process that is influenced by the underlying bony morphology, biology of the surrounding soft tissue structures, dynamic coordination of the periscapular musculature, and patient factors such as age, activity level, and associated injuries. This article will focus on the younger, active patient with instability due to deficiencies in the capsulolabral complex and dynamic stabilizers.

Scapulohumeral kinematics and neuromuscular control during scaption are associated with passive stiffness and strength of periscapular muscles in competitive adolescent swimmers

The passive stiffness and strength of periscapular muscles may affect scapulohumeral control, especially in overhead athletes due to sports-specific training. This study tried to assess the relationship between the passive stiffness and strength of periscapular muscles, scapulohumeral kinematics and neuromuscular control during scaption in swimmers. Ten male adolescent competitive front-crawl swimmers were recruited. The passive stiffness and strength of periscapular muscles were measured in standard postures by a hand-held myotonometer and dynamometer, respectively. Surface electromyography and electromagnetic tracking systems were synchronized to record the muscle activities and scapulohumeral kinematics during scaption. Correlations between the passive stiffness or strength of periscapular muscles and the kinematics or muscle activity were examined by Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. The maximal strength of periscapular muscles correlated positively with the ranges of upward and external rotation of the scapula and negatively with muscle activity during scaption. Passive stiffness of periscapular muscles was associated with the downward rotation of the scapula and triggered an increase in muscle activity. Increased passive stiffness or decreased strength in the periscapular muscles may affect their role in controlling the scapular rotation and contribute to compensation from adjacent muscles. Our findings suggest that when attempting to evaluate scapular behavior, it may be beneficial to examine muscle strength and passive stiffness of periscapular muscles.

Return to rugby following musculoskeletal injuries: A survey of views, practices and barriers among health and sport practitioners

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

Returning rugby players to the sport following musculoskeletal injuries is a multi-factorial and challenging process. A cross-sectional observational study was conducted among health and sport practitioners involved with injured rugby players in South Africa.

OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOME MEASURES

The views, current practices and barriers encountered by health and sport practitioners during return to rugby were investigated using a self-developed online survey.

RESULTS

64 practitioners participated in the survey including physiotherapists, orthopaedic surgeons, biokineticists and sports physicians. Return to sport (RTS) protocols were considered important, however, participants also indicated that they were slightly more likely to use anecdotal protocols compared to published protocols. Time frames, stages of healing, pain and subjective ratings along with functional outcome measures (such as range of motion, muscle function and proprioception) and sport-specific skills were rated as important and commonly utilised in different RTS phases (i.e., return to non-contact, return to contact and return to matches). The most commonly perceived barriers encountered were related to lack of access and time-constraints.

CONCLUSION

Return to rugby guidelines with consideration of a broad range of criteria and common barriers encountered should be developed to facilitate safe, practical and time-efficient return to rugby following musculoskeletal injuries.

Risk Factors for, and Prediction of, Shoulder Pain in Young Badminton Players: A Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Shoulder pain (SP) caused by hitting the shuttlecock is common in young badminton players. The objectives of the present study were to predict the risk factors for SP in young badminton players, and to determine the optimal risk factor cut-off that best discriminates those players who are at higher risk of suffering from SP.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study was conducted with 45 under-17 badminton players who participated in the Spanish Championship. Data were collected on anthropometric age, sports history, sagittal spinal curves, range of motion (ROM) and maximum isometric strength of shoulder. After 12 months, players completed a SP history questionnaire. Bayesian Student's t-analysis, binary logistic regression analysis and ROC analysis were performed.

RESULTS

Overall, 18 (47.4%) players reported at least one episode of SP. The shoulder internal rotation (SIR) ROM showed the strongest association (OR = 1.122; p = 0.035) with SP. The SIR ROM has an excellent ability to discriminate players at increased risk for SP (p = 0.001). The optimal cut-off for SIR ROM, which predicts players with an 81% probability of developing SP, was set at 55° (sensitivity = 75.0%, specificity = 83.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

The young badminton players who had a shoulder internal rotation ROM of 55° or less have a higher risk of SP one year later.

Risk factors and prevention strategies for shoulder injuries in overhead sports: an updated systematic review

PURPOSE

The aim of this systematic review was to update the knowledge on risk factors and prevention strategies for shoulder injuries in overhead sports with special emphasis on methodological quality.

METHODS

All methodological procedures were performed in line with a previous systematic review by Asker et al. (2018). The literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane, and SPORT-Discuss databases. Due to the risk of bias assessment, only studies with at least an acceptable methodological quality were included. A best-evidence synthesis was performed to clarify the evidence and direction of the risk factors and prevention strategies.

RESULTS

A total of nine studies were included in the data extraction process. One study had a high and eight studies had an acceptable methodological quality. Seven cohort studies investigated risk factors and two randomised controlled trails evaluated prevention strategies. Moderate evidence was found for two non-modifiable (playing position, gender) and three modifiable factors (shoulder rotational strength, scapular dyskinesia, shoulder prevention programme) that were associated with the shoulder injury risk. All further risk factors had moderate and no association with risk (shoulder rotational ROM, joint position sense) or limited (history of shoulder/elbow pain, age, training experience, training volume, school grade, playing level), and conflicting evidence (setting).

CONCLUSIONS

There is moderate evidence for two non-modifiable (playing position, gender) and three modifiable factors (shoulder rotational strength, scapular dyskinesia, shoulder prevention programme) being associated with the shoulder injury risk in overhead sports.

Criteria for Return-to-Play (RTP) after Rotator Cuff Surgery: A Systematic Review of Literature

This systematic review of the literature aimed to highlight which criteria are described in the literature to define when a patient, after rotator cuff repair (RCR), is ready for return-to-play (RTP), which includes return to unrestricted activities, return to work, leisure, and sport activities. An online systematic search on the US National Library of Medicine (PubMed/MEDLINE), SCOPUS, Web of Science (WOS), and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, was performed with no data limit until December 2021. A total of 24 studies that reported at least one criterion after RCR were included. Nine criteria were identified and among these, the most reported criterion was the time from surgery, which was used by 78% of the studies; time from surgery was used as the only criterion by 54% of the studies, and in combination with other criteria, in 24% of the studies. Strength and ROM were the most reported criteria after time (25%). These results are in line with a previous systematic review that aimed to identify RTP criteria after surgical shoulder stabilization and with a recent scoping review that investigated RTP criteria among athletes after RCR and anterior shoulder stabilization. Compared to this latest scoping review, our study adds the methodological strength of being conducted according to the Prisma guidelines; furthermore, our study included both athletes and non-athletes to provide a comprehensive view of the criteria used after RCR; moreover, ten additional recent manuscripts were examined with respect to the scoping review.