The influence of betaine on untrained and trained horses exercising to fatigue

Effects of 6-Week Betaine Supplementation on Muscular Performance in Male Collegiate Athletes

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 6-week betaine supplementation during a preparatory period of collegiate athletes on muscular power and strength. Sixteen male collegiate athletes received 5 g/day of betaine (betaine group, n = 9) or carboxymethyl cellulose (placebo group, n = 7) for 6 weeks. All participants engaged in their regular training during the experimental period. The overhead medicine-ball throw (OMBT), countermovement jump, and maximal strength (one repetition maximum, 1-RM) on the bench press, overhead press, half squat, and sumo dead lift by the participants were assessed before and after betaine supplementation. Blood lipids were also analyzed before and after betaine supplementation. After supplementation, there were no significant differences between betaine and placebo groups on any variables. Compared to presupplementation, the performance of OMBT and 1-RM of overhead press and half squat in the betaine group had significantly improved (p < 0.05). By contrast, no significant differences were observed in the placebo group before and after supplementation. Blood analysis revealed no negative effect on blood lipid profiles. Betaine seems to be a useful nutritional strategy to improve and maintain performance during 6-week preparatory periods in collegiate athletes.

Blood Biochemical Variables Found in Lidia Cattle after Intense Exercise

Simple Summary

There are limited published data in cattle on blood biological variables in response to intense work or after significant physical exertion. Stress should be considered in addition to exercise in the Lidia breed due to their agonistic behavioral characteristics. Therefore, changes in blood biological variables in response to intense exercise and stress were evaluated. Specifically, 438 bulls of the Lidia breed were sampled after a bullfight in order to determine the concentrations of different blood variables. We found that most of the measured blood variables clearly increased. Thus, severe hyperglycemia and an increase in various enzymes (LDH, AST, GGT, ALT, and particularly CK) were observed. The increase in all these variables is justified by the mobilization of energy sources, tissue and muscle damage, and dehydration, due to intense exercise and stress.

Abstract

There are limited published data in the bovine species on blood biological variables in response to intense work or after significant physical exertion. Lidia cattle, in addition to their exercise components, have some behavioral agonistic features that make them more susceptible to stress. The bullfight involves stress and exercise so intense that it causes significant changes in some metabolic variables. The study objective was to evaluate changes in blood biological variables in response to intense exercise and stress. After the fight in the arena, and once the bulls were dead (n = 438), blood samples were taken, and some biochemical and hormonal variables were determined in venous blood. A descriptive analysis was performed using the Statistica 8.0. computer program. The mean (±s.d.) results obtained were: total protein (85.8 ± 10.8 g/dL), albumin (3.74 ± 4.3 g/dL), triglycerides (39.65 ± 0.16 mg/dL), cholesterol (2.44 ± 0.03 mmol/L), glucose (22.2 ± 9.6 mmol/L), uric acid (340 ± 80 µmol/L), creatinine (236.9 ± 0.4 µmol/L), urea (5.93 ± 1.27 mmol/L), LDH (2828 ± 1975 IU/L), CK (6729 ± 10,931 IU/L), AST (495 ± 462 IU/L), ALP (90 ± 33 IU/L), GGT (50 ± 34 IU/L), ALT (59 ± 35 IU/L), cortisol (117.5 ± 46.6 nmol/L), and testosterone (20.2 ± 23.8 nmol/L). Most of the measured variables clearly increased; thus, we found severe hyperglycemia and increases in LDH, AST, GGT, and ALT enzymes, particularly in CK. The increases in all these variables are justified by the mobilization of energy sources, tissue/muscle damage, and dehydration due to continued stress and intense exercise.

Effects of Aleurone Supplementation on Glucose-Insulin Metabolism and Gut Microbiome in Untrained Healthy Horses

Aleurone, a layer of the bran fraction, is deemed to be responsible for the positive health effects associated with the consumption of whole-grain products. Studies on rodents, pigs, and humans report beneficial effects of aleurone in five main areas: the reduction of oxidative stress, immunomodulatory effects, modulation of energy management, digestive health, and the storage of vitamins and minerals. Our study is the first aleurone supplementation study performed in horses. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of an increase in the dose levels of aleurone on the postprandial glucose-insulin metabolism and the gut microbiome in untrained healthy horses. Seven adult Standardbred horses were supplemented with four different dose levels of aleurone (50, 100, 200, and 400 g/day for 1 week) by using a Latin square model with a 1-week wash out in between doses. On day 7 of each supplementation week, postprandial blood glucose-insulin was measured and fecal samples were collected. 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequencing was performed and QIIME2 software was used for microbiome analysis. Microbial community function was assessed by using the predictive metagenome analysis tool Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States (PICRUSt) and using the Metacyc database of metabolic pathways. The relative abundancies of a pathway were analyzed by using analysis of composition of microbiomes (ANCOM) in R. There was a significant dose-dependent increase in the postprandial time to peak of glucose (p = 0.030), a significant delay in the time to peak of insulin (p = 0.025), and a significant decrease in both the insulin peak level (p = 0.049) and insulin area under the curve (AUC) (p = 0.019) with increasing dose levels of aleurone, with a consideration of 200 g being the lowest significant dose. Alpha diversity and beta diversity of the fecal microbiome showed no significant changes. Aleurone significantly decreased the relative abundance of the genera Roseburia, Shuttleworthia, Anaerostipes, Faecalibacter, and Succinovibrionaceae. The most pronounced changes in the relative abundance at phyla level were seen in Firmicutes and Verrucomicrobia (downregulation) and Bacteroidetes and Spirochaetes (upregulation). The PICRUSt analysis shows that aleurone induces a downregulation of the degradation of L-glutamate and taurine and an upregulation of the three consecutive pathways of the phospholipid membrane synthesis of the Archaea domain. The results of this study suggest a multimodal effect of aleurone on glucose-insulin metabolism, which is most likely to be caused by its effect on feed texture and subsequent digestive processing; and a synergistic effect of individual aleurone components on the glucose-insulin metabolism and microbiome composition and function.

Betaine Supplementation Does Not Improve Muscle Hypertrophy or Strength Following 6 Weeks of Cross-Fit Training

We aim to investigate the effect of 6 weeks of betaine supplementation on body composition and muscle performance during CrossFit© training. Twenty-nine subjects matched for training status (4.16 ± 0.95 day/week) and body fat mass (12.66 ± 4.08%) were randomly assigned to a betaine (BET; N = 14) or placebo group (PLA; N = 15). Body composition and cellular hydration were estimated with skinfolds measurement and bioelectrical impendence before and after 6 weeks of training. Muscle performance was assessed using three different tests: 3-RM back-squat for muscle strength, 2 km rowing test for aerobic capacity and Bergeron Beep Test for anaerobic capacity. Muscle strength assessed during back squat significantly increased in BET (p = 0.04) but not in the PLA group, however, there were no statistical differences between groups. Although not significant, fat mass was reduced in BET compared to PLA. Overall, body composition and cell hydration measurements did not change in response to training or betaine supplementation. Short-term (6 weeks) betaine supplementation supports muscle strength but was not ergogenic for trained subjects to aerobic and anaerobic performance in the CrossFit©-specific test.

Dietary betaine supplementation improves meat quality of transported broilers through altering muscle anaerobic glycolysis and antioxidant capacity

BACKGROUND

To investigate the effect of dietary betaine supplementation on growth performance, meat quality, muscle anaerobic glycolysis and antioxidant capacity of transported broilers, 1-day-old partridge-shank-broiler-chickens (n = 192) were randomly divided into three groups for a 50-day feeding trial. The broilers in the control group were fed a basal diet, and experienced 0.75-h transport before slaughter. The broilers in the other three groups were fed a basal diet supplemented with 0, 500 or 1000 mg kg^-1 betaine, respectively, and experienced 3-h transport before slaughter (T, T + BET₅₀₀ or T + BET₁₀₀₀ groups).

RESULTS

Dietary betaine supplementation increased (P < 0.05) average daily gain of broilers, and feed conversion ratio was also improved (P < 0.05) by 500 mg kg^-1 betaine supplementation. Compared with the control group, 3-h transport increased (P < 0.05) live weight loss, serum corticosterone and cortisol concentrations, as well as muscle lactate and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents, and decreased (P < 0.05) muscle pH_24h , glycogen content and total superoxide dismutase activity. Compared with the T group, betaine supplementation decreased (P < 0.05) serum corticosterone and cortisol concentrations and muscle MDA content, and increased (P < 0.05) muscle a*_24 h . In addition, 1000 mg kg^-1 betaine supplementation further decreased (P < 0.05) muscle drip loss, lactate content and lactate dehydrogenase activity, and increased (P < 0.05) muscle glutathione content and glutathione peroxidase activity.

CONCLUSION

Betaine supplementation not only improved growth performance of broilers, but also alleviated meat quality deterioration of transported broilers through altering muscle anaerobic glycolysis and antioxidant capacity. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of Betaine Supplementation on Muscle Strength and Power: A Systematic Review

Ismaeel, A. Effects of betaine supplementation on muscle strength and power: a systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 31(8): 2338-2346, 2017-Betaine (BET) has recently gotten much attention for its potential role as an ergogenic aid and has become a common ingredient in peri-workout dietary supplements. The purpose of this systematic review of the literature was to investigate the effects of BET supplementation on muscular strength and power. A computerized literature search of 3 databases (PubMed, MEDLINE, and Scopus) was performed. Included in the review were randomized controlled trials that measured muscle strength, power, or both measures in healthy participants. Quality was assessed using the PEDro scale. Seven trials were identified, and quality assessment showed that all were of "excellent quality." Only 2 of the studies reported increases in strength or power after supplementation with BET. The remaining 5 studies showed no change in any strength or power outcome measures with BET supplementation. This review highlights the lack of evidence for a clear ergogenic effect of BET supplementation on strength and power performance. However, because 2 studies did identify increases of up to 24.61% on strength and power as a result of BET supplementation, additional studies are necessary to evaluate its effectiveness.

Meirelles P. Dimethylglycine supplementation in horses performing incremental treadmill exercise

Our objective was to verify the effect of the period of dimethylglycine (DMG) supplementation in horses subjected to incremental treadmill exercise, on the metabolic and physiologic variables and indices related to physical performance. Four adult Arabian horses with a mean age of 8±1.5 years and a mean body weight of 340±10.8 kg were used. The utilised experimental design was the 4×4 Latin square, constituted by four periods of four weeks of evaluation, intercalated with four weeks of wash-out periods. The treatments consisted of periods of DMG (30 g of commercial product) administration: without supplementation, and with supplementation for 10, 20 and 30 days. There was a significant effect of the DMG supplementation given during 30 days over the reduction in the lactate concentration after the test exercise. Alterations of V200 (speed in which the horse reaches 200 heart beats/min) and VL4 (speed which corresponds to a blood lactate of 4 mmol/l) were not observed (P>0.05), however there was a travelled distance elevation in the tests in function of the increase on the days of supplementation, by linear regression (P<0.05) analysis. It was verified that there was no effect from the DMG supplementation in horses on the heart rate and there was only a significant difference between treatments for the rectal temperature after exercise, where the supplementation for 30 days resulted in values statistically superior to the control group. Therefore, we can conclude that the equine supplementation with a DMG product in the dosage of 30 g/day for a one-month period affects the lactate metabolisms, as well as increases the travelled distance during an incremental treadmill test.

Proteomics analysis of altered cellular metabolism induced by insufficient copper level

Insufficient copper level in the mammalian cell culture medium resulted in lactate accumulation while maintaining similar growth and culture viability profiles. Label-free, LC-MS/MS-based shotgun proteomics method was applied to compare the protein expression profiles obtained from the cultures exposed to suboptimal copper level to those provided with sufficient amount of copper. Under copper deficient condition, a substantial reduction of the protein levels of the multiple subunits of Complex IV, also known as cytochrome c oxidase, of the mitochondrial electron transport chain was observed for all three different Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell lines expressing therapeutic monoclonal antibodies tested. Additional proteins affected by suboptimal copper level included peroxiredoxin (PRDX) and hepatocyte-derived growth factor (HDGF), which were affected during early phase of the fed-batch production, several days prior to initiation of lactate accumulation. In contrast, proteins such as syntenin (SDCBP) and integral membrane 2C (ITM2C) showed altered expression patterns toward the end of culture duration, after lactate divergence had occurred. For all conditions tested, time was the most predominant factor facilitating the direction of global protein expression trend, with substantial number of proteins subjected to time-dependent changes in expression, independent of copper.

Ergogenic effects of betaine supplementation on strength and power performance

Background

We investigated the ergogenic effects of betaine (B) supplementation on strength and power performance.

Methods

Twelve men (mean ± SD age, 21 ± 3 yr; mass, 79.1 ± 10.7 kg) with a minimum of 3 months resistance training completed two 14-day experimental trials separated by a 14-day washout period, in a balanced, randomized, double-blind, repeated measures, crossover design. Prior to and following 14 days of twice daily B or placebo (P) supplementation, subjects completed two consecutive days (D1 and D2) of a standardized high intensity strength/power resistance exercise challenge (REC). Performance included bench, squat, and jump tests.

Results

Following 14-days of B supplementation, D1 and D2 bench throw power (1779 ± 90 and 1788 ± 34 W, respectively) and isometric bench press force (2922 ± 297 and 2503 ± 28 N, respectively) were increased (p < 0.05) during REC compared to pre-supplementation values (1534 ± 30 and 1498 ± 29 W, respectively; 2345 ± 64 and 2423 ± 84 N, respectively) and corresponding P values (1374 ± 128 and 1523 ± 39 W; 2175 ± 92 and 2128 ± 56 N, respectively). Compared to pre-supplementation, vertical jump power and isometric squat force increased (p < 0.05) on D1 and D2 following B supplementation. However, there were no differences in jump squat power or the number of bench press or squat repetitions.

Conclusion

B supplementation increased power, force and maintenance of these measures in selected performance measures, and these were more apparent in the smaller upper-body muscle groups.

Effect of betaine supplementation on power performance and fatigue

Background

The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of 15 days of betaine supplementation on muscle endurance, power performance and rate of fatigue in active college-aged men.

Methods

Twenty-four male subjects were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The first group (BET; 20.4 ± 1.3 years; height: 176.8 ± 6.6 cm; body mass: 77.8 ± 13.4 kg) consumed the supplement daily, and the second group (PL; 21.4 ± 4.7 years; height: 181.3 ± 5.9 cm; body mass: 83.3 ± 5.2 kg) consumed a placebo. Subjects were tested prior to the onset of supplementation (T1) and 7 (T2) and 14 days (T3) following supplementation. Each testing period occurred over a 2-day period. During day one of testing subjects performed a vertical jump power (VJP) and a bench press throw (BPT) power test. In addition, subjects were required to perform as many repetitions as possible with 75% of their 1-RM in both the squat and bench press exercises. Both peak and mean power was assessed on each repetition. On day two of testing subjects performed two 30-sec Wingate anaerobic power tests (WAnT), each test separated by a 5-min active rest.

Results

No differences were seen at T2 or T3 in the repetitions performed to exhaustion or in the number of repetitions performed at 90% of both peak and mean power between the groups in the bench press exercise. The number of repetitions performed in the squat exercise for BET was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than that seen for PL at T2. The number of repetitions performed at 90% or greater of peak power in the squat exercise was significantly greater for BET at both T2 and T3 than PL. No differences in any power assessment (VJP, BPT, WAnT) was seen between the groups

Conclusion

Two-weeks of betaine supplementation in active, college males appeared to improve muscle endurance of the squat exercise, and increase the quality of repetitions performed.

Synergistic effects of betaine and conjugated linoleic acid on the growth and carcass composition of growing Iberian pigs

An experiment was conducted to determine the efficacy of dietary betaine, CLA, or both as growth promotants and carcass modifiers in growing Iberian pigs. Twenty gilts (20 kg of BW) were individually penned and fed barley- and soybean meal-based diets (12% CP, 0.81% Lys, and 14.8 MJ of ME/kg of DM) containing either no added betaine or CLA (control), 0.5% betaine, 1% CLA, or 0.5% betaine + 1% CLA, at 95% of ad libitum energy intake. An additional group of 5 pigs was slaughtered at the beginning of the experiment to obtain the initial body composition. At 30 kg of BW, a balance experiment was conducted. At 50 kg of BW, pigs were slaughtered and viscera was removed and weighed. Betaine or CLA alone did not affect growth performance. However, betaine + CLA increased ADG (601 vs. 558 g, P = 0.03) and gain relative to ME intake (25.4 vs. 22.2 g/MJ, P = 0.03) compared with control pigs. Digestibility of nutrients and metabolizability of energy did not differ among diets (P = 0.46 to 0.75). Carcass protein, water, and lean deposition (g/d) increased (19.8, 24.2, and 23.4%, respectively, P < 0.01) in pigs fed betaine + CLA compared with control pigs. Similarly, protein deposition relative to ME intake increased by 28% in betaine + CLA-supplemented pigs (P < 0.05). Fat and mineral deposition did not differ among treatments. Carcass protein, water, and lean content (g/kg of carcass) of pigs fed betaine + CLA-supplemented diets tended to increase (P = 0.07 to 0.09) and carcass fat content tended to decrease (P = 0.09). Similarly, estimated composition of carcass gain was affected, such that water and lean content tended to increase (P = 0.06 to 0.08), whereas fat tended to decrease (P = 0.08) in pigs fed betaine + CLA-supplemented diets. Longissimus muscle area was not altered by treatments (P = 0.49). The liver of pigs fed betaine + CLA diets had increased weight (19%, P < 0.05) compared with control pigs. Overall, dietary supplementation of betaine + CLA increased ADG, protein, water, and lean deposition in growing Iberian gilts. There appears to be a synergistic action when betaine and CLA are used together.

Potential nutritional and physiological functions of betaine in livestock

The present review summarises the potential nutritional and physiological functions of betaine as a feed additive in relation to performance criteria in livestock production. Betaine, the trimethyl derivative of the amino acid glycine, is a metabolite of plant and animal tissues. In plants, betaine is particularly synthesised and accumulated as an osmoprotectant against salt and temperature stress. In animals, betaine is the product of choline oxidation or it originates from nutritional sources. Over the past decades, numerous studies have been carried out to investigate the potential effects of betaine supplementation on animal performance. Due to its chemical structure, betaine shows the characteristics of a dipolar zwitterion resulting in osmoprotective properties. Promoting effects on the intestinal tract against osmotic stress occurring during diarrhoea or coccidiosis have been reported following betaine supplementation in pigs and poultry. There is also some evidence that dietary betaine may improve the digestibility of specific nutrients. As a product of choline oxidation, betaine is involved in transmethylation reactions of the organism. Betaine as a methyl donor provides its labile methyl groups for the synthesis of several metabolically active substances such as creatine and carnitine. Supplementation with betaine may decrease the requirement for other methyl donors such as methionine and choline. There is also some evidence for enhanced methionine availability after dietary supplementation of betaine resulting in improved animal performance. Alterations in the distribution pattern of protein and fat in the body have been reported following betaine supplementation. A more efficient use of dietary protein may result from a methionine-sparing effect of betaine, but also direct interactions of betaine with metabolism-regulating factors have to be considered. Though the mode of action of betaine as a carcass modifier remains open, there is, however, growing evidence that betaine could have a positive impact both on animal performance and carcass quality.

The role of nutritional supplements and feeding strategies in equine athletic performance

In human and animal nutrition, much interest has been focused on the potential role of dietary supplements in promoting health, athletic performance and disease mitigation. Supplements may include essential nutrients provided in amounts greater than required to prevent a deficiency state, or substances purported to have a role in metabolism or tissue function but that are not recognized as an essential nutrient. This review aims to provide the rationale and scientific evidence for use (or not) of some of the supplements marketed for use in horses, with emphasis on supplements purported to directly boost performance, such as creatine, carnitine and branched-chain amino acids. It also discusses the so-called ‘joint supplements’ (or slow-acting, disease-modifying osteoarthritis agents), such as glucosamine and chondroitin sulphate. The effects of selected feeding strategies on performance, including fat supplementation, are also examined. It is concluded that although the use of nutritional supplements is commonly alleged to boost performance or health in horses, for most, if not all, of these supplements there is little or no scientific evidence of efficacy.