A Systematic Review on the Impact of Vaccination for Respiratory Disease on Antibody Titer Responses, Health, and Performance in Beef and Dairy Cattle

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is a multifactorial disease complex commonly affecting beef and dairy operations. Vaccination against major BRD-related pathogens is routinely performed for disease prevention; however, uniform reporting of health and performance outcomes is infrequent. Our objective was to evaluate the effect of commercially available BRD-pathogen vaccination on titer response with respect to health or performance in beef and dairy cattle. This study was conducted under Prisma 2020 guidelines for systematic reviews and PRESS guidelines utilizing five databases. Criteria for study inclusion were as follows: research conducted in the USA or Canada, between 1982 and 10 October 2022, on beef or dairy cattle, using a commercially available vaccine labeled for a respiratory pathogen of interest, which evaluated antibody titers alongside either performance or morbidity. A total of 3020 records underwent title and abstract evaluation. Full-text analysis was conducted on 466 reports; 101 studies were included in the final review. Approximately 74% of included studies were beef cattle-based versus 26% dairy cattle-based. This review aimed to assess how vaccination titer responses affect beef and dairy cattle health and performance, but varying study methods made comparisons difficult, highlighting the need for consistent reporting.

Comparison of physiological markers, behavior monitoring, and clinical illness scoring as indicators of an inflammatory response in beef cattle

Clinical illness (CI) scoring using visual observation is the most widely applied method of detecting respiratory disease in cattle but has limited effectiveness in practice. In contrast, body-mounted sensor technology effectively facilitates disease detection. To evaluate whether a combination of movement behavior and CI scoring is effective for disease detection, cattle were vaccinated to induce a temporary inflammatory immune response. Cattle were evaluated before and after vaccination to identify the CI variables that are most indicative of sick cattle. Respiratory rate (H2 = 43.08, P < 0.0001), nasal discharge (H2 = 8.35, P = 0.015), and ocular discharge (H2 = 16.38, P = 0.0003) increased after vaccination, and rumen fill decreased (H2 = 20.10, P < 0.0001). Locomotor activity was measured via leg-mounted sensors for the four days preceding and seven days following vaccination. A statistical model that included temperature, steps, lying time, respiratory rate, rumen fill, head position, and excess saliva was developed to distinguish between scores from before and after vaccination with a sensitivity of 0.898 and specificity of 0.915. Several clinical illness signs were difficult to measure in practice. Binoculars were required for scoring respiratory rate and eye-related metrics, and cattle had to be fitted with colored collars for individual identification. Scoring each animal took up to three minutes in a small research pen; therefore, technologies that can automate both behavior monitoring and identification of clinical illness signs are key to improving capacity for BRD detection and treatment.

Loss of a grooming enrichment impacts physical, behavioural, and physiological measures of welfare in grazing beef cattle

Pasture-based beef cattle are raised in a range of production environments. Some paddocks may contain trees and other objects that allow for grooming, hence being naturally enriching, whilst others may be barren without these opportunities. Additionally, it is not uncommon for cattle to move between these enriched and barren environments as part of routine management. While the benefits of enrichment are well studied, how this 'enrichment loss' impacts cattle welfare as access to stimuli is removed is unknown. This trial assessed the impacts of the loss of an enriching object (grooming brush) on grazing beef cattle welfare and production characteristics. When grooming brush access was blocked, cattle became dirtier, showed reduced average daily gain, and had elevated faecal cortisol metabolites, although this varied according to the degree of initial individual brush use. Additionally, allogrooming and grooming on other objects were reduced when access to the brush was returned, potentially indicating a rebound effect. These results demonstrate that the loss of adequate grooming objects can impair the overall welfare of grazing cattle; however, further work is needed to determine exactly which natural or artificial objects provide adequate grooming opportunities.

Behavioral activity patterns but not hair cortisol concentrations explain steers' transition-related stress in the first 6 wk in the feedlot

Stress during the transition of beef steers from ranch to feedlot may depend on steer source and preconditioning. The interplay between physiological and behavioral patterns of preconditioned (PC) and auction-derived (AD) steers, particularly after commingling, is poorly understood. Our objective was to evaluate whether hair cortisol (HC) concentrations were related to the health and performance of PC and AD steers and study behavioral activities after commingling over 6 wk in a feedlot. Steers, sourced either from ranch (PC, n = 250) or local auction (AD, n = 250), were assigned into 1 of 5 pens, 100% PC (100PC); 75% PC 25% AD (75PC); 50% PC 50% AD (50PC); 25% PC 75% AD (25PC), and 100% AD (0PC), each pen containing 100 steers. Pen was the experimental unit and individual steers were the observational unit where physiological and behavioral changes were measured. The study subsampled 225 steers (PC = 113 and AD = 112) which were equipped with CowManager ear tags to record behaviors. On day 40, hair samples from each steer were collected by clipping hair close to the skin. Data were analyzed using multiple linear, logistic regression, or multilevel negative binomial regression models depending on the outcomes. There was no difference in HC concentrations (day 40) between PC and AD steers (P = 0.66), and no association with Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD)-related morbidity (P = 0.08) or average daily gain (ADG) (P = 0.44). After adjusting for source and commingling effects, HC concentrations did not affect time spent eating (P = 0.83), ruminating (P = 0.20), active (P = 0.89), or non-active (P = 0.32). PC steers spent more time eating and ruminating over weeks 1 to 4 (P < 0.01) and weeks 1 to 3, respectively (P < 0.05), and more time being active over weeks 1 and 2 compared to AD steers (P < 0.001), but less time being non-active than AD steers on weeks 1 to 3 (P < 0.001). Steers in 100PC and 50PC pens spent more time eating than steers in 0PC (P < 0.001), whereas steers in 25PC spent less time eating than steers in 0PC (P < 0.001). Steers in 0PC spent the most time being not active (P < 0.01). In conclusion, preconditioned steers spent more time eating, ruminating, and being active and less time being not active over the first 3 wk in the feedlot, regardless of commingling. The HC concentrations did not identify potentially lower stress related to ranch transfer and were neither associated with BRD-related morbidity nor ADG.

An Evaluation of Temporal Distributions of High, Low, and Zero Cohort Morbidity of Cumulative First Treatment Bovine Respiratory Disease and Their Associations with Demographic, Health, and Performance Outcomes in US Feedlot Cattle

Timing and magnitude of bovine respiratory disease (BRD) can impact intervention and overall economics of cattle on feed. Furthermore, there is a need to better describe when cattle are being treated for BRD. The first objective was to perform a cluster analysis on the temporal distributions of cumulative first treatment BRD from HIGH (≥15% of cattle received treated for BRD) and LOW cohorts (>0 and <15% of cattle received treated for BRD) to assess cohort-level timing (days on feed) of BRD first treatments. The second objective was to determine associations among cluster groups (temporal patterns) and demographic risk factors, health outcomes, and performance. Cluster analysis determined that optimal number of clustering groups for the HIGH morbidity cohort was six clusters and LOW morbidity cohort was seven clusters. Cohorts with zero BRD treatment records were added for statistical comparisons. Total death loss, BRD morbidity, average daily gain (ADG), railing rate, days to 50% BRD, cattle received, shrink, arrival weight, and sex were associated with temporal groups (p < 0.05). These data could be used as a tool for earlier identification and potential interventions for cohorts based on the BRD temporal pattern.

Roughage level and supplemental fat for newly received finishing calves: effects on growth performance, health, and physiological responses

This experiment evaluated the effects of roughage levels and supplemental fat on intake, growth performance, health, and physiological responses of newly received finishing cattle during 58-d receiving period. A total of 72 crossbred steers (initial body weight [BW] = 200 ± 13 kg) were used in a randomized complete block design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments, consisting of two roughage levels (wheat hay at 30% [R30] or 60% [R60]; dry matter [DM] basis) and two levels of supplemental fat (yellow grease at 0% [-FAT; no additional fat] or 3.5% [+FAT]; DM basis). Upon arrival, calves were individually weighed, blocked by off-truck shrunk BW, and assigned to 24 soil-surfaced pens (three calves per pen). Shrunk BW was also collected on day 58 for the calculation of average daily gain (ADG). Throughout the study, calves were assessed for bovine respiratory disease (BRD). Effects of roughage level × supplemental fat interaction were only observed for diet particle size distribution and estimated physically effective neutral detergent fiber (peNDF) of diets (P ≤ 0.10). Adding fat to R60 diets tended to increase the percentage of particles retained in the 8-mm screen (P = 0.06) and the estimated peNDF (P = 0.10), but did not affect R30 diets. Dietary roughage level did not affect DM intake (DMI; P = 0.85). Calves-fed R30 tended to have greater ADG and final BW than calves-fed R60 (P ≤ 0.08). Gain efficiency (gain:feed ratio; G:F) was greater for calves-fed R30 than calves-fed R60 (P = 0.01). Dietary roughage level did not affect morbidity and mortality (P ≥ 0.11). Supplemental fat did not affect DMI (P = 0.6) but tended (P = 0.09) to increase ADG compared to -FAT diets. The G:F was greater for calves-fed +FAT than -FAT (P = 0.03). The +FAT diet tended (P = 0.10) to increase the number of retreatments against BRD compared to -FAT, although the total number of antimicrobial treatments required to treat sick calves (P = 0.78) and the mortality rate (P = 0.99) were not affected by supplemental fat. Feeding +FAT diet tended (P ≤ 0.09) to increase plasma concentration of cortisol and immunoglobulin-G compared to -FAT. In summary, feeding 30% roughage diets or adding 3.5% yellow grease (DM basis) as supplemental fat increased G:F during the feedlot receiving period.

Beef Cattle Preference and Usage of Environmental Enrichments Provided Simultaneously in a Pasture-Based Environment

Environmental enrichment can improve livestock welfare through increasing environmental complexity to promote a greater range of natural behaviours. However, there is limited understanding of the need for and impacts of enrichments for extensively managed beef cattle that can sometimes be kept in grassed paddocks devoid of additional natural and artificial features, i.e., ‘barren pastures’. This trial assessed which enrichments beef cattle preferred and utilised in a barren paddock environment. Eight groups of seven Angus steers housed on pastured paddocks devoid of natural or artificial features were observed during daylight hours for two days a week over a period of three weeks, after being presented with four enrichments simultaneously: a cattle brush, a piece of hanging rope, a tree stump, and a woodchip pile. Although enrichment use generally decreased over time, the brush, stump, and woodchip maintained a higher level of use than the rope, based on the frequency of interactions and number of displacements around the enrichments (both p < 0.001). This suggests that the brush, stump, and woodchip pile were more valuable resources to the cattle, allowing for grooming and lying behaviours, although oral manipulations also occurred on the stump, woodchip, and rope. The inclusion of these enrichments can increase the complexity of barren pasture environments and allow for the increased expression of natural behaviours, potentially contributing to improved welfare.

A Systematic Review of Automatic Health Monitoring in Calves: Glimpsing the Future From Current Practice

Infectious diseases, particularly bovine respiratory disease (BRD) and neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD), are prevalent in calves. Efficient health-monitoring tools to identify such diseases on time are lacking. Common practice (i.e., health checks) often identifies sick calves at a late stage of disease or not at all. Sensor technology enables the automatic and continuous monitoring of calf physiology or behavior, potentially offering timely and precise detection of sick calves. A systematic overview of automated disease detection in calves is still lacking. The objectives of this literature review were hence: to investigate previously applied sensor validation methods used in the context of calf health, to identify sensors used on calves, the parameters these sensors monitor, and the statistical tools applied to identify diseases, to explore potential research gaps and to point to future research opportunities. To achieve these objectives, systematic literature searches were conducted. We defined four stages in the development of health-monitoring systems: (1) sensor technique, (2) data interpretation, (3) information integration, and (4) decision support. Fifty-four articles were included (stage one: 26; stage two: 19; stage three: 9; and stage four: 0). Common parameters that assess the performance of these systems are sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, and negative predictive value. Gold standards that typically assess these parameters include manual measurement and manual health-assessment protocols. At stage one, automatic feeding stations, accelerometers, infrared thermography cameras, microphones, and 3-D cameras are accurate in screening behavior and physiology in calves. At stage two, changes in feeding behaviors, lying, activity, or body temperature corresponded to changes in health status, and point to health issues earlier than manual health checks. At stage three, accelerometers, thermometers, and automatic feeding stations have been integrated into one system that was shown to be able to successfully detect diseases in calves, including BRD and NCD. We discuss these findings, look into potentials at stage four, and touch upon the topic of resilience, whereby health-monitoring system might be used to detect low resilience (i.e., prone to disease but clinically healthy calves), promoting further improvements in calf health and welfare.

Measuring Calves' Usage of Multiple Environmental Enrichment Objects Provided Simultaneously

This study aims to assess calf usage of five potential enrichment devices provided simultaneously. We used 25 weaned Holstein-Friesian calves housed in groups of five (five replicates), and their behavior was recorded continuously with video cameras. This longitudinal observational study used a pen equipped with a mechanical and fixed brush, cowhide, and horizontal and vertical ropes. Data collected included how many visits each object received per day, the type of object usage, and the duration of the visits. Calves used all five objects at least once, and they used items more during the daytime than at night. Brushes were used mainly for grooming (e.g., rubbing or scratching), while ropes and cowhide for oral interactions (e.g., licking, chewing, and biting), most likely to lack oral stimulations that would naturally be satisfied by suckling and grazing at this age. The objects most frequently used were the mechanical brush and the horizontal rope, and they received the highest number of visits (214.9 and 154.9 bouts/day, respectively). The least chosen object was the stationary brush, which had the lowest number of visits (62.9 bouts/day). The provision of multiple enrichment objects for weaned calves should be considered as they may add complexity and novelty to barren environments.

Scoping review on clinical definition of bovine respiratory disease complex and related clinical signs in dairy cows

Bovine respiratory disease complex (BRD) is a worldwide multifactorial infectious disease. Antimicrobials are commonly used for treating BRD because bacteria are often involved. The clinical diagnosis of BRD is a challenge, especially in adult dairy cows, where information on this syndrome is scant. Having a definition based on consistent and reliable clinical signs would improve the accuracy of BRD diagnosis and could help to develop an optimal treatment approach by an early detection. The aim of this scoping review was to review clinical signs that could be recognized by producers in dairy cattle suffering from naturally occurring infectious respiratory disease, as reported in the literature. A review of the literature was performed for articles published between January 1, 1990 and January 1, 2020. The search of literature in English, French, and Italian languages included 2 different databases (Pubmed, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/; CAB abstract, https://www.cabi.org/publishing-products/cab-abstracts/). Clinical signs were categorized as follows: (1) "general manifestations of disease," which included behavioral changes or fever; (2) "alterations in respiratory function," which included clinical signs specifically associated with the respiratory tract examination; and (3) "clinical signs of other body systems," which included clinical signs related to other systems such as diarrhea or subcutaneous emphysema. The focus of the review was on clinical signs that could be monitored by animal handlers and producers. A total of 1,067 titles were screened, and 23 studies were finally included. The most common general clinical signs were increased body temperature (reported in 83% of studies, n = 19), change in feed intake (26%, n = 6), altered mentation (22%, n = 5), and decreased milk production (17%, n = 4). The alterations in respiratory function noted were nasal discharge (74%, n = 17), cough (65%, n = 15), altered respiratory dynamic or dyspnea (61%, n = 14), increased respiratory rate (43%, n = 10), and ocular discharge or lacrimation (30%, n = 7). The clinical signs associated with infectious respiratory disease reported in the 23 studies generally lacked a clear description of what constitutes a deviation from normality (0-50% of studies clearly reported what was considered normal versus abnormal depending on the clinical signs). This limitation prevented any comparison between studies that apparently reported the same "clinical sign," but possibly referred to a different assessment and definition of what was considered normal versus abnormal. Therefore, the definition of clinical signs in a repeatable way with validated interobserver agreement to determine the optimal combination for the diagnosis of BRD in dairy cows is needed. This could lead to a more judicious use of antimicrobials for respiratory disease in adult dairy cows.

Production Significance of Bovine Respiratory Disease Lesions in Slaughtered Beef Cattle

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is still a serious concern in feedlots, where it exerts a negative effect on farm productivity. There is a shortage of studies focused on the evaluation of BRD-associated lesions at the slaughterhouse in clinically healthy animals. The objective of this work was to investigate the prevalence and type of subclinical pneumonic lesions in slaughtered beef cattle, according to the age range and management system, and its impact on carcass weight. A total of 1101 beef cattle intended for human consumption were examined at slaughter. Information on age, sex, management system and carcass weight was recorded. The presence and type of pneumonia were evaluated according to gross and microscopic findings and etiological agents by PCR. Lung pneumonic lesions appeared in 17.9% of animals and were predominant among veal calves. According to the type, chronic catarrhal pneumonia prevailed in the majority of animals, and mixed and extensively reared cattle were more likely to suffer acute fibrinous pneumonia. The presence of pneumonic lesions was associated with a significant decrease in carcass weight that had more of an impact in veal male calves coming from intensive systems. Bacterial infections were the predominant infectious agent and the only cause of acute fibrinous pneumonia, while viruses were infrequent and only found in lesions with chronic catarrhal pneumonia. This study shows the importance of BRD in beef feedlots upon production values and points out the feasibility of slaughterhouse assessment of pneumonia as a method for the evaluation of BRD significance.

Bovine Respiratory Disease Diagnosis: What Progress Has Been Made in Clinical Diagnosis?

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex is a worldwide health problem in cattle and is a major reason for antimicrobial use in young cattle. Several challenges may explain why it is difficult to make progress in the management of this disease. This article defines the limitation of BRD complex nomenclature, which may not easily distinguish upper versus lower respiratory tract infection and infectious bronchopneumonia versus other types of respiratory diseases. It then discusses the obstacles to clinical diagnosis and reviews the current knowledge of readily available diagnostic test to reach a diagnosis of infectious bronchopneumonia.

Effect of the Depth of Insertion of the Thermometer on the Rectal Temperature of Donkeys During the Hot-Dry Season in a Tropical Savannah

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of the depth of insertion and environmental parameters on the rectal temperature (RT) in donkeys during the hot-dry season in a tropical savannah zone of Nigeria. The experimental subjects were comprised of thirty donkeys divided into three groups based on age: group I, 10 foals (40.67 ± 2.20 kg; 1.50 ± 0.02 months); group II, 10 yearlings (91.53 ± 0.54 kg; 1.51 ± 0.01 years); and group III, 10 adults (140 ± 0.71 kg; 8.03 ± 0.06 years). Each group was divided into 5 male and 5 female donkeys. Measurements of the RT were recorded with a digital thermometer probe (model HI935007, Hanna Instruments), which was inserted into the rectum at varying depths of 3.5, 7, 10.5, and 14 cm in the same animal in each group. There was a gradual increase in the RT in donkeys as the depth of insertion was increased from 3.5 cm (36.60°C) to 14 cm (38.40°C). Data obtained from the study were subjected to repeated-measures analysis of variance, followed by Tukey's post-hoc test to compare mean values between different depths of RT measurements. Overall, there was a variation in the RT by the depth of insertion with the shallow depth of 3.5 cm having a lower RT than the depths of 7, 10.5, and 14 cm. The variation of the RT observed in donkeys showed that there is need to standardize the probe-insertion depth in veterinary clinical practice for accurate measurement of the RT in donkeys in the Northern Guinea savannah zone of Nigeria.

Short communication: Predictors of time to dairy calf bucket training

The time required to adequately bucket-train a dairy calf to drink its milk allotment is unknown. Additionally, factors that could predict calves who are slow to learn have not been identified. A prospective observational study was conducted to describe timing of bucket training and possible calf birth and colostrum quality factors that might predict calves requiring extra time to train. On one dairy farm, 1,235 calves were enrolled at birth in a prospective cohort study. Calving ease score, calf presentation at birth, twinning, calf sex, and dam parity were recorded by farm personnel. An as-fed colostrum sample for each calf was collected and evaluated for total solids, total plate bacterial count, and coliform bacterial count. Calf serum total protein values were obtained by d 2 to 3 of life. Calves were observed before the morning milk feeding for attitude/posture, and after feeding for assistance needed to drink milk from their bucket. Attitude/posture was significantly associated with whether a calf required assistance or not. Almost 60% (n = 724) of calves consumed their morning milk allotment (2 L) after d 3 of life without assistance. Significant factors associated with the odds of requiring assistance with drinking after 3 d of age included calf sex, being born a twin, and the week the calf was enrolled. Knowing how long it takes to train a calf to drink from a bucket could be useful in allocating the time or labor required to successfully train calves.

Assessment of nebulisation of sodium ceftiofur in the treatment of calves naturally infected with bovine respiratory disease

Twelve screened cases of bovine respiratory disease (BRD) in calves were enrolled. Six of the calves were treated intramuscularly with sodium ceftiofur (1 mg/kg), and six were treated with nebulised sodium ceftiofur (1 mg/kg). Comparative evaluation of the two therapeutic modalities was based on repetitive analysis of hematological profile of calves on days 0, 5, and 10 post-therapy. The mortality rate in the group of calves treated with the nebulised sodium ceftiofur was significantly (p < 0.001) lower, and their clinical and hematological parameters returned to normal significantly (p < 0.001) faster than in calves treated intramuscularly. Nebulisation of sodium ceftiofur is the most effective treatment in calves with BRD under field conditions. Nasal lavage fluid analysis indicating a high rise of neutrophil count and macrophages may be used as an alternative method to detect pulmonary inflammation in BRD-affected calves.