The progression of deoxynivalenol-induced growth suppression in nursery pigs and the potential of an algae-modified montmorillonite clay to mitigate these effects

Biomarkers of Fumonisin Exposure in Pigs Fed the Maximum Recommended Level in Europe

This study investigated biomarkers of fumonisin exposure in pigs fed diets contaminated with fumonisins at the European Union's maximum recommended level. Pigs were assigned to either a fumonisin (FB) diet or a fumonisin plus AlgoClay (FB + AC) diet for durations of 4, 9, and 14 days. At 14 days, the plasma Sa1P:So1P ratio increased in pigs fed the FB diet, while the Sa:So ratio remained unchanged. In the liver, FB1 was detected at four days of exposure, with the concentration tending to increase through day 14. The Sa:So and C22-24:C16 ratios of 18:1-, 18:2-, and m18:1-ceramides were elevated at 9 and 14 days, respectively. In the kidneys, FB1 was only detectable at 14 days, and the Sa:So and C22-24:C16 ratios of 18:1-ceramides were increased. In both the liver and kidneys, the increase in the C22-24:C16 ratio was attributed to a reduction of C16 ceramides. In the lungs, no FB1 was detected; however, the Sa:So and Sa1P:So1P ratios increased, and C16 ceramide concentrations decreased at 14 days. Feeding the pigs the FB + AC diet resulted in a reduction of the FB1 tissue-to-feed ratio in the liver and kidneys but did not affect the Sa:So or Sa1P:So1P ratios. Interestingly, the decreases in C16 ceramides observed in the FB diet group were no longer detectable in the FB + AC group. Overall, these findings highlight the complexity of the relationship between FB1 tissue concentrations and sphingolipid changes, suggesting that a comprehensive analysis of multiple biomarkers is required to fully understand fumonisin's effects.

Effects of dietary deoxynivalenol on growth performance and organ accumulation of growing pigs

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to study effects of a chronic feeding of deoxynivalenol (DON) on growth performance, organ weight, organ DON accumulation, and blood parameters in pigs.

METHODS

Forty-eight castrated male pigs with a body weight of 10.4 kg (standard deviation = 1.7) were assigned to one of 2 diet groups in a randomized complete block design with 6 blocks of pens per diet and 4 pigs per pen. A corn-soybean meal-based control diet was prepared to contain a low DON concentration of 0.28 mg/kg. Corn distillers dried grains with solubles naturally contaminated with DON were used at 30.0% to prepare a contaminated diet with a high DON concentration of 1.8 mg/kg. During the 56-day experimental period, body weight and feed intake were recorded every 14 days. A pig from each pen was euthanized for the collection of organs and muscle every 14 days.

RESULTS

Gain:feed in pigs fed the contaminated diet during days 14 to 28 and days 28 to 42 were less (p<0.05) compared with the control group. As increasing feeding period, the DON concentrations in fresh liver increased during days 14 to 28 and then decreased during the subsequent periods in the DON group, whereas the DON concentrations in fresh liver were constant during the experimental period in the control group (quadratic interaction p = 0.049). The DON concentration in the kidneys in the DON group was greater (p = 0.002) than that in the control group regardless of feeding period. On day 56, the granulocyte count in the DON group was less (p = 0.035) than the control group.

CONCLUSION

A chronic feeding of DON for 14 to 42 days decreased gain:feed in pigs, and dietary DON naturally contaminated in corn distillers dried grains with solubles accumulated in the liver during days 14 to 28.

Degradation of deoxynivalenol by a microbial consortia C1 from duck intestine

Deoxynivalenol (DON), one of the most widespread mycotoxins in food and feed, poses a persistent health threat to humans and farm animals, and is difficult to eliminate. The utilization of the biotransformation mechanism by microorganisms to detoxify DON is a promising strategy. Although individual strains are capable of DON degradation, their isolation and purification are challenging and time-consuming. Recently, the microbial consortia concept has been proposed, owing to their ability to perform more complex tasks and are more tolerant to environmental changes than individual strains or species. In this study, the novel microbial consortia C1 that could efficiently convert DON to de-epoxy DON (DOM-1) was screened from the cecum contents of ducks. After 24 h anaerobic incubation, 100 μg/ml DON was completely degraded by C1. In vitro, C1 can effectively degrade DON in corn steep liquor (CSL) with an efficiency of 49.44% within 14 days. Furthermore, C1 effectively alleviated the DON poisoning in mice. After C1 treatment, the serum DON level decreased by 40.39%, and the reduction in serum total protein and albumin levels were mitigated. Additionally, C1 is effective in protecting the mouse liver against 5 mg/kg DON. These findings suggest that C1 could be a promising DON biological detoxifier and provide novel microbial resources for preventing DON contamination.

Effects of Mycotoxin-Sequestering Agents on Growth Performance and Nutrient Utilization of Growing Pigs Fed Deoxynivalenol-Contaminated Diets

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of supplemental mycotoxin-sequestering agents on growth performance and nutrient utilization in growing pigs fed deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated diets. Twelve barrows with an initial body weight of 35.5 kg (standard deviation = 1.3) were assigned to six dietary treatments in a replicated 6 × 5 incomplete Latin square design. Five experimental diets consisted of an uncontaminated diet (PC), a DON-contaminated diet at 6.89 mg/kg (NC), NC + bentonite 0.5%, NC + yeast cell wall 0.5%, and NC + a mixture product 0.5% which consisted of enzymes, microorganisms, minerals, and plant extracts. Pigs had ad libitum access to the five diets. In the last group, the PC diet was restrictedly provided to pigs at the quantity of feed consumption of the NC group. Average daily gain, average daily feed intake, and gain:feed were not affected by supplemental mycotoxin-sequestering agents except for the mixed product that tended to improve (p = 0.064) gain:feed in pigs fed DON-contaminated diets. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter was not affected by DON contamination or by supplemental mycotoxin-sequestering agents, whereas the ATTD of Ca was decreased (p = 0.032) by supplemental yeast cell wall in pigs fed DON-contaminated diets. The ATTD of P was greater (p = 0.042) in pigs fed the NC diet compared with the pigs fed the restricted amount of the PC diet. In conclusion, bentonite and yeast cell wall did not affect growth performance of pigs fed DON-contaminated diets, but a supplemental mixed product consisting of enzymes, microorganisms, minerals, and plant extracts partially alleviated the negative effects of dietary DON on the gain:feed of pigs. Calcium digestibility was decreased by supplemental yeast cell wall in pigs fed DON-contaminated diets. Based on the present work, the use of a mixed product consisting of enzymes, microorganisms, minerals, and plant extracts is suggested, and the reduction of Ca digestibility by yeast cell wall needs to be considered in diet formulations.

Deoxynivalenol induces intestinal injury: insights from oxidative stress and intestinal stem cells

Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that frequently occur in human and animal diets. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most widely occurring mycotoxins globally and poses significant harm to the animal husbandry industry and human health. People are increasingly aware of the adverse effects of DON on vulnerable structures and functions in the intestine, especially in the field of intestinal stem cells (ISCs). In this review, we present insights into DON that induces oxidative stress and affects the expansion of ISCs. Related studies of strategies for reducing its harm are summarized. We also discussed promising approaches such as regulation of microbiota, molecular docking, and modulation of the redox status via reducing the expression of Keap1 protein and single-cell sequencing, which may be critical for further revealing the mechanism of DON that induces oxidative stress and affects the expansion of ISCs.

Impact of increasing standardized ileal digestible valine: lysine in diets containing 30% dried distiller grains with solubles on growing pig performance

A total of 2,430 pigs (DNA 600 × Topigs Norsvin 70, initially 39.4 kg) were used in a 28-d trial to determine the standardized ileal digestible (SID) Val:Lys requirement for pigs fed with diets containing 30% DDGS. Treatments included five diets containing 30% DDGS with SID Val:Lys ratios of 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, and 80%, plus a corn soybean meal (SBM) diet, for a total of six dietary treatments. Diets were formulated to be isocaloric through the inclusion of fat and to contain equal amounts of SID Lys within phase. Pens were assigned to dietary treatment in a randomized complete block design with initial body weight (BW) as the random blocking factor. Each dietary treatment was replicated 15 times and pens contained 27 pigs, balanced for sex. Increasing the SID Val:Lys ratio in diets containing 30% DDGS increased (Quadratic; P ≤ 0.007) 14-d BW, final BW, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain:feed (G:F) for all periods. Providing an SID Val:Lys ratio of 75% resulted in the heaviest 14-d BW and final BW as well as greater ADG and ADFI of pigs fed with 30% DDGS for all periods. The G:F response was maximized when an SID Val:Lys ratio of 70% was provided from day 0 to 14 while an SID Val:Lys ratio of 75% maximized G:F from day 14 to 28 and for the cumulative period. The SID Val:Lys requirement was estimated at 66.6% (95% CI [65.9, 67.4]), 65.7 (95% CI: [64.8, 66.5]), and 68.4% (95% CI [66.0, 70.8]) for ADG, ADFI, and G:F, respectively, using the straight broken line (SBL) method and 69.9% (95% CI [68.2, 71.5]), 67.6 (95% CI [65.4, 69.8]), and 72.8% (95% CI [69.8, 75.8]) for the quadratic broken line (QBL) method. Pigs fed the corn-SBM diet had heavier 14-d BW, final BW, and greater ADG, ADFI, G:F (P ≤ 0.032) compared to pigs fed diets containing 30% DDGS, except for cumulative ADFI compared to pigs receiving 75% SID Val:Lys (P = 0.167). In conclusion, these results suggest that when feeding 30% DDGS during the growing period, an SID Val:Lys ratio of 68% would yield more than 99% and 97% of the maximum ADG and G:F response for the 39 to 68 kg pigs. However, growth performance of pigs fed diets containing 30% DDGS did not equate to pigs consuming the corn-SBM diet regardless of the SID Val:Lys ratio.

Effects of feeding variable levels of mycotoxins with or without a mitigation strategy on growth performance, gut permeability, and oxidative biomarkers in nursery pigs

The objectives were to determine how high levels (&gt; 2.5 mg/kg diet) of deoxynivalenol (DON), in conjunction with other naturally occurring mycotoxins (MTX) would impact growth, intestinal integrity, and oxidative status, with or without a mitigation strategy, in nursery pigs. One-hundred and five pigs (5.5 ± 0.52 kg) were randomly allotted to 35 pens and fed dietary treatments for 45 d. Treatments were factorially arranged with the inclusion of MTX being low (L-MTX; &lt; 1 mg/kg diet) or high (H-MTX; &gt; 2.5 mg/kg diet) in combination with no mitigation strategy or the inclusion of a mitigation strategy (Biofix® Plus, BPL; 1.5 mg/kg diet). There was no interaction between MTX level and BPL inclusion on average daily gain (ADG) or gain to feed ratio (GF), (P &gt; 0.10). Compared to pigs fed diets containing L-MTX, feeding pigs diets containing H-MTX decreased ADG and GF (P &lt; 0.05). The addition of BPL had no effect on ADG (P &gt; 0.10), but improved GF (P = 0.09). There was an interaction between MTX and BPL on average daily feed intake (ADFI), where the addition of BPL had no effect on ADFI of pigs fed L-MTX diets but improved ADFI of pigs fed H-MTX diets (P = 0.09). An interaction was detected between MTX and BPL on protein oxidation as measured by plasma protein carbonyls (PC, P = 0.01), where the inclusion of BPL decreased plasma PC in pigs fed H-MTX diets to a greater extent than pigs fed the L-MTX diets. There was no interaction between MTX and BPL, or an effect of MTX or BPL on DNA damage as measured by 8-hydroxy-2ʹdexoxyguanosine (P &gt; 0.10). There was no interaction between MTX and BPL, or a BPL effect on lipid damage as measured by thiobarbituic acid reactive substances (TBARS, P &gt; 0.10), but pigs fed diets containing H-MTX exhibited lower concentrations of plasma TBARS (P = 0.07) compared to pigs fed L-MTX diets. There was no interaction between MTX and BPL, or an effect of MTX or BPL on plasma lactulose and mannitol ratio as a measure of intestinal permeability (P &gt; 0.10). In conclusion, feeding H-MTX decreased ADG and GF, decreased plasma TBARS, but did not affect plasma 8-hydroxy-2ʹdexoxyguanosine or plasma LM ratio. The inclusion of a mitigation strategy improved ADFI when pigs were fed H-MTX diets and improved GF regardless of MTX level. Addition of a mitigation strategy also reduced plasma protein damage but did not affect indicators of DNA or lipid damage or affect gastrointestinal integrity.

Fumonisin B1 Accumulates in Chicken Tissues over Time and This Accumulation Was Reduced by Feeding Algo-Clay

The toxicokinetics of the food and feed contaminant Fumonisin B (FB) are characterized by low oral absorption and rapid plasma elimination. For these reasons, FB is not considered to accumulate in animals. However, recent studies in chicken and turkey showed that, in these species, the hepatic half-elimination time of fumonisin B1 (FB1) was several days, suggesting that FB1 may accumulate in the body. For the present study, 21-day-old chickens received a non-toxic dose of around 20 mg FB1 + FB2/kg of feed to investigate whether FB can accumulate in the body over time. Measurements taken after four and nine days of exposure revealed increased concentrations of sphinganine (Sa) and sphingosine (So) over time in the liver, but no sign of toxicity and no effect on performances were observed at this level of FB in feed. Measurements of FB in tissues showed that FB1 accumulated in chicken livers from four to nine days, with concentrations of 20.3 and 32.1 ng FB1/g observed, respectively, at these two exposure periods. Fumonisin B2 (FB2) also accumulated in the liver, from 0.79 ng/g at four days to 1.38 ng/g at nine days. Although the concentrations of FB found in the muscles was very low, an accumulation of FB1 over time was observed in this tissue, with concentrations of 0.036 and 0.072 ng FB1/g being measured after four and nine days of exposure, respectively. Feeding algo-clay to the chickens reduced the accumulation of FB1 in the liver and muscle by , approximately 40 and 50% on day nine, respectively. By contrast, only a weak non-significant effect was observed on day four. The decrease in the concentration of FB observed in tissues of chickens fed FB plus algo-clay on day nine was accompanied by a decrease in Sa and So contents in the liver compared to the levels of Sa and So measured in chickens fed FB alone. FB1 in the liver and Sa or So contents were correlated in liver tissue, confirming that both FB1 and Sa are suitable biomarkers of FB exposure in chickens. Further studies are necessary to determine whether FB can accumulate at higher levels in chicken tissues with an increase in the time of exposure and in the age of the animals.

A Review of the Varied Uses of Macroalgae as Dietary Supplements in Selected Poultry with Special Reference to Laying Hen and Broiler Chickens

Seaweeds comprise ca. 12,000 species. Global annual harvest is ca. 30.13 million metric tonnes, (valued ca. $11.7 billion USD in 2016) for various commercial applications. The growing scope of seaweed-based applications in food, agricultural fertilizers, animal feed additives, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and personal care is expected to boost market demand. Agriculture and animal feed applications held the second largest seaweed market share in 2017, and the combined market is anticipated to reach much higher values by 2024 due to the impacts of current research and development targeting enhanced animal health and productivity. In general, seaweeds have been utilized in animal feed as a rich source of carbohydrates, protein, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibers with relatively well-balanced amino acid profiles and a unique blend of bioactive compounds. Worldwide, the animal nutrition market is largely driven by rising demand for poultry feeds, which represents ca. 47% of the total consumption for all animal nutrition. This review provides an overview of the utilization of specific seaweeds as sustainable feed sources for poultry production, including a detailed survey of seaweed-supplemented diets on growth, performance, gastrointestinal flora, disease, immunity and overall health of laying/broiler hens. Anti-microbial effects of seaweeds are also discussed.

Effects of feeding high-protein corn distillers dried grains and a mycotoxin mitigation additive on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and pork fat quality of growing-finishing pigs

Two experiments investigated the effects of feeding diets containing 30% of novel high-protein distillers dried grains (HP-DDG) sources to growing–finishing pigs on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and pork fat quality. A four-phase feeding program was used in both experiments, and diets within phases were formulated based on National Research Council (NRC; 2012) recommendations for metabolizable energy and standardized ileal digestible amino acid content of HP-DDG. In Exp. 1, a total of 144 pigs (body weight [BW] = 20.3 ± 1.6 kg) were fed either corn-soybean meal control diets (CON) or 30% HP-DDG diets (HP-DDG) containing 0.7 mg/kg deoxynivalenol (DON), 0.1 mg/kg fumonisins (FUM), and 56 μg/kg zearalenone (ZEA) for 8 wk. On week 9, a mycotoxin mitigation additive (MA) was added to CON and HP-DDG diets, resulting in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments consisting of: CON, CON + MA, HP-DDG, and HP-DDG + MA. Pigs fed HP-DDG had lower (P < 0.01) average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) compared with those fed CON during the first 8 wk. After MA was added to diets, pigs fed HP-DDG diets without MA had lower (P < 0.05) overall ADG than those fed HP-DDG + MA and less (P < 0.05) final BW than pigs fed CON or CON + MA. Adding MA to HP-DDG diets containing relatively low concentrations of mycotoxins was effective in restoring growth performance comparable to feeding CON. In Exp. 2, a different source of HP-DDG was used, and mycotoxin MAs were added to all diets at the beginning of the trial. A total of 144 pigs (BW = 22.7 ± 2.3 kg) were fed either a corn-soybean meal control diet or a 30% HP-DDG diet containing 0.5 mg/kg DON and 0.8 mg/kg FUM for 16 wk. Pigs fed HP-DDG diets had less (P < 0.01) final BW and ADG than pigs fed CON, but there were no differences in ADFI. Feeding the HP-DDG diets reduced (P < 0.01) hot carcass weight, carcass yield, longissimus muscle area (LMA), and percentage of carcass fat-free lean compared with pigs fed CON but did not affect backfat (BF) depth. Pigs fed HP-DDG had less (P < 0.01) saturated fatty acid (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content and greater (P < 0.01) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and iodine value in BF than pigs fed CON. These results suggest that feeding diets containing relatively low concentrations of co-occurring mycotoxins can be detrimental to growth performance, and the addition of MA alleviated the growth reduction. Feeding 30% HP-DDG reduced BW, ADG, carcass yield, LMA, and percentage of fat-free lean of growing–finishing pigs but yielded acceptable pork fat quality.

Biomarkers for Exposure as A Tool for Efficacy Testing of A Mycotoxin Detoxifier in Broiler Chickens and Pigs

Applying post-harvest control measures such as adding mycotoxin detoxifying agents is a frequently-used mitigation strategy for mycotoxins. EFSA states that the efficacy of these detoxifiers needs to be tested using specific biomarkers for exposure. However, the proposed biomarkers for exposure are not further optimized for specific target species. Hence, the goal of this study was a) to evaluate the most suitable biomarkers for deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in porcine plasma, urine and feces; and DON, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in plasma and excreta of broiler chickens and b) to determine the efficacy of a candidate detoxifier, as a proof-of-concept study. Therefore, a mixture of mycotoxins was administered as a single oral bolus with or without detoxifying agent. In accordance with literature AFB1, OTA, and DON-sulphate (DON-S) proved optimal biomarkers in broilers plasma and excreta whereas, in pigs DON-glucuronide (DON-GlcA) and ZEN-glucuronide (ZEN-GlcA) proved the optimal biomarkers in plasma, DON and ZEN-GlcA in urine and, ZEN in feces. A statistically significant reduction was seen between control and treatment group for both AFB1 and DON in broiler plasma, under administration of the mycotoxin blend and detoxifier dose studied suggesting thus, beneficial bioactivity.