Which index should I use? A comparison of indices for enclosure use studies

Do not disturb: Visitors' effect on the behavior and welfare of female and male big cats in zoos

The effect of visitor presence on animal behavior needs to be evaluated to ensure the welfare and improve the husbandry of the individuals in zoos. This study aims to assess the effect of visitor presence on the behavior and welfare of pairs of Amur tiger, snow leopard, and Eurasian lynx at Parco Natura Viva, Italy. The study was made of two periods: the baseline, in which the zoo was closed, and the visitor presence period, in which the zoo was opened. Per period and per subject 12 30-min observations were done. Continuous focal animal sampling method was used to collect behavior duration of the big cats. The main results of the study highlighted that, when visitors were present, all felids except for the female lynx were significantly more inactive than in the baseline. Moreover, despite interindividual and inter-species variability in the significance level of findings, natural behaviors such as attentive behavior, exploration/marking, locomotion, and positive social interactions were performed more in the baseline than in the visitor presence period. Finally, when visitors were present, as the studied subjects experienced daily longer exposure to visitors, inactivity increased whereas individual species-typical behaviors (e.g., locomotion) and positive social interactions decreased. Thus, visitors seem to partially alter the behavioral time-budgets of the study big cats, increasing inactivity and decreasing the performance of species-specific behavior, at least in some individuals.

Visitors and observers otter-ly influence the behavior and enclosure use of zoo-housed giant otters

The potential impact of human presence on captive animal behavior has recently been the focus of considerable research interest, especially following 2020 and 2021 periods of enforced closure as a result of COVID-19 opening restrictions. It is important to investigate whether human presence represents an enriching or stressful stimulus to a range of zoo-housed species. In 2020, during an easing of lockdown restrictions, investigations of the "visitor effect" and "observer effect" were carried out, using the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) as a model species. To investigate the impact of both visitor and observer presence, otter behavior and space use was recorded for a pair of on-show and a pair of off-show otters. Observations were conducted using either a human observer, or cameras, allowing the researchers to investigate otter behavior when no one was present at the exhibits. The Electivity Index was used to assess the otters' use of four enclosure zones. Overall, otter behavior was significantly impacted by observer presence, though the impact of an observer differed between individual otters. Visitors had a minimal effect on otter enclosure use, whereas observers had a greater impact, whereby otters used their pools less frequently and houses more frequently when observers were present. However, this change in zone use differed between individuals, with more dominant otters tending to make use of indoor zones more often when observers were present. Zoos should consider the potential impact of human presence on their animals and use both behavior and space use when conducting their investigations.

The Science and Social Validity of Companion Animal Welfare: Functionally Defined Parameters in a Multidisciplinary Field

Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client's needs and preferences. The study of a learner's welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look "under the skin" and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner's perspective.

Review of the Effects of Enclosure Complexity and Design on the Behaviour and Physiology of Zoo Animals

The complexity of the habitat refers to its physical geometry, which includes abiotic and biotic elements. Habitat complexity is important because it allows more species to coexist and, consequently, more interactions to be established among them. The complexity of the habitat links the physical structure of the enclosure to the biological interactions, which occur within its limits. Enclosure complexity should vary temporally, to be able to influence the animals in different ways, depending on the period of the day and season and throughout the year. In the present paper, we discuss how habitat complexity is important, and how it can positively influence the physical and mental states of zoo animals. We show how habitat complexity can ultimately affect educational projects. Finally, we discuss how we can add complexity to enclosures and, thus, make the lives of animals more interesting and functional.

Postoccupancy evaluation of staff, visitors, and three species of animals in a zoo setting

Postoccupancy evaluation (POE) was used to assess newly constructed zoo exhibits from the perspective of three user groups: zoo staff, zoo visitors, and the animals. Staff represents a generally understudied user group in zoo-based POEs. We asked staff to rate the animals' space, the visitors' space, and the staff's space at previous and new exhibits. We also compared zoo visitors' ratings of the animals' behavior and environments, overall exhibit impressions, and the time visitors spent viewing previous and new exhibits. Lastly, we compared activity and space use of a Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), two red pandas (Ailurus fulgens), and one rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in their previous and new exhibits. Staff rated animal, visitor, and staff areas higher at the new exhibits compared to the previous exhibits. Visitors also rated several factors higher and spent more time at the new exhibits. The most naturalistic exhibit received the most favorable ratings in all categories and animal activity increased visitor stay time. We found that red pandas were less active in their new exhibit, and the Komodo dragon and rhino showed no difference in activity. The red pandas and the Komodo dragon used more available space in their new exhibits; however, we recommend using Electivity index to examine resource preferences for these species, whose enclosure use has been less studied than large mammals. We emphasize the importance of including staff in zoo-based POE, make other recommendations for future POE studies, and discuss various factors that could have influenced our results.

Investigating Unused Tools for the Animal Behavioral Diversity Toolkit

Behavioral diversity is a commonly used tool used to quantify the richness and evenness of animal behaviors and assess the effect of variables that may impact an animal's quality of life. The indices used in behavioral diversity research, and the study subjects, have not been formally reviewed. This paper aims to identify which indices are being used in behavioral diversity research, and under which scenarios, and uncover novel indices from other disciplines that could be applied to behavioral diversity. To investigate the techniques and species investigated in behavioral diversity literature, a Web of Science literature search was conducted. Two methods: behavioral richness and the Shannon-Wiener index, were the most frequently used indices, whereas the Behavioral Variability index featured rarely. While a range of species appeared in the behavioral literature, mammals were the most frequently studied Class, whereas amphibians did not feature in any papers. There are several diversity indices which did not feature in behavioral diversity including Simpson's index, and Chao. Such indices could be used to better understand animal behavioral study outputs or be used to estimate the number of 'unobserved' behaviors that an animal may express. Future studies could therefore extend beyond the Shannon-Wiener and richness indices.

Effects of New Seal Introductions on Conspecific and Visitor Activity

Simple Summary

Modern zoos and aquariums are defined by several goals, which include improving the welfare of their animals, conservation efforts, public education, research, and visitor enjoyment. Animal-Visitor Interactions (AVIs) are a means to study the outcomes of some of these goals. These outcomes can be measured in terms of visitor effects (the effects of the visitors on the exhibited animals) and visitor experiences (the effects of the animals and the institution itself on the visitors). Additionally, new animal introductions have been examined for their effects on animals, but little has been done to measure the introduction visitor experience. The purpose of this study was to observe the effects of new animal introductions at two exhibits on both animal and visitor activity. Changes in existing animals’ behaviors and visitor crowd size and length of stay were measured before and after new animal introductions. The introduction had neutral to positive impacts on both variables, suggesting potential benefits on AVIs based on new animal introductions. Such studies could help establish best practices for new animal introductions and ways to promote positive AVIs within a zoo/aquarium setting.

Abstract

Modern zoos and aquariums are defined by several primary goals, which include improving the welfare of their animals, public education, and inspiring visitors to develop an interest in conservation. Animal-Visitor Interactions (AVIs) (i.e., the impact of captive animals and visitors on each other) are a primary means to study these goals. The introduction of new animals into two seal exhibits—the harbor and northern fur seals—at the Seattle Aquarium presented a valuable opportunity to assess the impacts of introductions on the currently exhibited animals and aquarium visitors. The impacts of animal introductions were measured through direct observations of seal activity (i.e., ethogram behavioral observations) and visitor activity (i.e., crowd size and visitor length of stay) before and after new seal introductions. This study consisted of two experiments: Experiment 1 (Harbor seal exhibit) and Experiment 2 (Northern fur seal exhibit). In Experiment 1, we found that the introduction had few impacts on the existing harbor seals or on visitor activity. In Experiment 2, the introduction of a new fur seal had significant positive impacts on the existing fur seal, as was seen through increased social behaviors and decreased stereotypic behaviors, as well as a significant increase in crowd size post-introduction. Based on these findings, new animal introductions were associated with neutral to positive changes in both seal and visitor activity. Findings from this study suggest that studying new animal introductions can result in better understanding and promoting positive interactions with existing animals (introduction effects) and likewise positive experiences for zoo and aquarium visitors (introduction experiences).

The Animal-Visitor Interaction Protocol (AVIP) for the assessment of Lemur catta walk-in enclosure in zoos

Animal–Visitor Interactions (AVI) are activities offered by zoos and other tourism facilities, in which visitors come into close contact with animals. These activities can promote conservational and educational content, raise conservation mindedness and responsibility for the environment and animal welfare, but if not properly managed can jeopardize visitors’ and animals’ well-being and conservation efforts. The Animal-Visitor Interaction assessment Protocol (AVIP) has been designed to perform an integrated and multidisciplinary assessment of these activities, encompassing the “One Health, One Welfare” approach. AVIP throughout six different steps allows to assess the effects of AVIs both on animals, visitors, and the staff involved. Results can assist zoos to improve management decisions, ensure a transparent evaluation of their activities and promote conservation education goals. Lemurs walk-in enclosures have become increasingly popular among zoos, nevertheless studies focused on their assessment are still scarce. To validate AVIP to this particular AVI, we applied it to assess a walk-in enclosure hosting five Lemur catta in an Italian zoo. Results of behavioural and physiological analyses suggested no changes in animal welfare level and the Animal Welfare Risk Assessment showed low animal welfare risks. Two Visitor Experience Surveys were used to interview 291 visitors, showing that the assessed AVI could help promote the zoo’s conservation objectives and visitor education. Risk Assessment found low and medium risks to the health and safety of visitors. Results were then combined to perform a final ethical assessment. Some potential ethical concerns were detected, but the outcomes indicated that these conflicts were well managed. In the context of recent findings AVIP demonstrated its potential for application also in assessing AVIs involving primates. Our findings confirmed the usefulness of AVIP in assessing and monitoring AVIs, allowing to gain key information in a single process on multiple welfare-related parameters, educational impact, safety of the main stakeholders involved, and ethical concerns.

Location, Location, Location! Evaluating Space Use of Captive Aquatic Species—A Case Study with Elasmobranchs

The space use of captive animals has been reliably used as a tool to measure animal welfare in recent years. However, most analyses of space use focus primarily on terrestrial animals, with very little emphasis placed on the space use of aquatic animals. By comparing the space use of these animals to their natural histories and what would be expected of them physiologically, a general assessment of their overall welfare can be obtained. Using the Zoomonitor program, this study investigated the space use of five elasmobranch species housed in a captive aquatic environment: a blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), a nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum), a smooth dogfish (Musteluscanis), a bonnethead shark (Sphyrna tiburo), and a blacknose shark (Carcharhinus acronotus). The exhibit was delineated into five different zones: three represented the animal locations along the X/Y axis (‘Exhibit Use’), and two zones were related to the Z-axis (‘Depth Use’). The location of each individual on both the X/Y and Z axes was recorded during each observation. Heat maps generated from the Zoomonitor program were used in conjunction with the Spread of Participation Index (SPI) to interpret the data. It was found that while all the individuals used their given space differently, the Exhibit Use was relatively even overall (the SPI values ranged from 0.0378 to 0.367), while the Depth Use was more uneven (the SPI ranged from 0.679 to 0.922). These results mostly reflected what would be expected based on the species’ natural histories. However, for the smooth dogfish, the observed Exhibit Use and activity patterns revealed a mismatch between the anticipated and the actual results, leading to further interventions. As demonstrated here, space use results can be utilized to make positive changes to husbandry routines and enclosure designs for aquatic individuals; they are thus an important additional welfare measure to consider for aquatic species.

Behaviour of Zoo-Housed Red Pandas (Ailurus fulgens): A Case-Study Testing the Behavioural Variety Index

The red panda is listed as “endangered” in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, due to the rapid population decline. Improving our knowledge on the red panda biology and ethology is necessary to enhance its husbandry and breeding in zoos. Behavioural variety, intended as the presence of a wide array of species-specific behaviour, has been considered a positive welfare index in zoo-housed animals. The aim of this study was to describe the behaviour of two pairs of zoo-housed red pandas, one of them with an offspring, and to investigate the behavioural variability using the Behavioural Variety Index (BVI). Behavioural data from two zoo-living male–female pairs were collected. A continuous focal animal sampling method was used to collect individual and social behaviours of the two pairs. Forty-eight 30 min sessions per subject were carried out. For the BVI, a list of species-specific behaviours previously reported in the red panda was prepared and compared with the behavioural repertoire of the subjects of the study. First, species-specific behaviours were recorded, and no abnormal behaviour was reported. The percentages of time spent on different activities (e.g., routine behaviours, exploratory/territorial behaviours, consumption behaviours, locomotive behaviours, social behaviours, maternal behaviours) were similar to time budgets reported in the red panda, with routine behaviours (resting, comfort and vigilance) being the most performed in both pairs. Moreover, the BVI suggested that each red panda performed on average 73% of the behaviours described in previous literature on this species. In conclusion, studying the behavioural variety of red pandas in zoos can be a useful tool for assessing their welfare as well as improving our knowledge on the behavioural repertoire of a species that is difficult to observe in the wild.

Behavioral Assessment of Six Reptile Species during a Temporary Zoo Closure and Reopening

Simple Summary

Reptile welfare in captivity is vastly understudied given the diverse taxa and the large number of individuals held in zoos and aquariums. The varied natural ecologies of reptiles have the potential to impact how they perceive different stimuli, including zoo visitors. The current study aimed to explore the impact of visitors through observations on small groups of six reptile species during a temporary zoo closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic by measuring behavioral diversity, use of enclosure space, and select behaviors. The majority of the species showed intermediate responses to the change in visitor presence that varied in valence; however, some responses were more pronounced.

Abstract

Although reptiles are commonly housed in zoos and aquariums, their welfare is understudied for the diversity of species housed and the taxon’s current captive population size. The sensory abilities of reptiles have adapted to the varied ecological niches they inhabit, and these evolutionary adaptations impact how reptiles perceive the stimuli around them—including zoo visitors. This study aimed to assess visitor effects on small groups of six reptile species during a temporary zoo closure due to COVID-19 by measuring behavioral diversity, use of space (measured by a spread of participation index), and select behaviors. The species assessed showed diverse responses. The Catalina Island rattlesnakes (Crotalus catalinensis) demonstrated increased investigation and behavioral diversity after the zoo reopened compared to when the zoo was closed, but the European glass lizards (Pseudopus apodus) showed decreases in the amount of time spent exposed to the observers’ view and in their evenness of space use after the zoo was reopened to visitors. The other species, including beaded lizards (Heloderma horridum), Sonoran spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura macrolopha), Arrau turtles (Podocnemis expansa), and dwarf caimans (Paleosuchus palpebrosus), had intermediate changes in their responses to visitor presence.