1
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Zhang L, Gade V, Kirienko NV. Pathogen-induced dormancy in liquid limits gastrointestinal colonization of Caenorhabditis elegans. Virulence 2023; 14:2204004. [PMID: 37096826 PMCID: PMC10132241 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2023.2204004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Colonization is generally considered a prerequisite for infection, but this event is context-dependent, as evidenced by the differing ability of the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa to efficiently colonize Caenorhabditis elegans on agar but not in liquid . In this study, we examined the impact of the environment, pathogen, host, and their interactions on host colonization. We found that the transition to a liquid environment reduces food uptake by about two-fold. Also expression of specific adhesins was significantly altered in liquid-based assays for P. aeruginosa, suggesting that it may be one factor driving diminished colonization. Unexpectedly, host immune pathways did not appear to play a significant role in decreased colonization in liquid. Although knocking down key immune pathways (e.g. daf-16 or zip-2), either alone or in combination, significantly reduced survival, the changes in colonization were very small. In spite of the limited bacterial accumulation in the liquid setting, pathogenic colonization was still required for the virulence of Enterococcus faecalis. In addition, we found that a pathogen-induced dormancy was displayed by C. elegans in liquid medium after pathogen exposure, resulting in cessation of pharyngeal pumping and a decrease in bacterial intake. We conclude that poor colonization in liquid is likely due to a combination of environmental factors and host-pathogen interactions. These results provide new insights into mechanisms for colonization in different models, enabling pathogenesis models to be fine-tuned to more accurately represent the conditions seen in human infections so that new tools for curbing bacterial and fungal infections can be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyang Zhang
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Vyshnavi Gade
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
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2
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Sponsel J, Guo Y, Hamzam L, Lavanant AC, Pérez-Riverón A, Partiot E, Muller Q, Rottura J, Gaudin R, Hauck D, Titz A, Flacher V, Römer W, Mueller CG. Pseudomonas aeruginosa LecB suppresses immune responses by inhibiting transendothelial migration. EMBO Rep 2023; 24:e55971. [PMID: 36856136 PMCID: PMC10074054 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202255971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative bacterium causing morbidity and mortality in immuno-compromised humans. It produces a lectin, LecB, that is considered a major virulence factor, however, its impact on the immune system remains incompletely understood. Here we show that LecB binds to endothelial cells in human skin and mice and disrupts the transendothelial passage of leukocytes in vitro. It impairs the migration of dendritic cells into the paracortex of lymph nodes leading to a reduced antigen-specific T cell response. Under the effect of the lectin, endothelial cells undergo profound cellular changes resulting in endocytosis and degradation of the junctional protein VE-cadherin, formation of an actin rim, and arrested cell motility. This likely negatively impacts the capacity of endothelial cells to respond to extracellular stimuli and to generate the intercellular gaps for allowing leukocyte diapedesis. A LecB inhibitor can restore dendritic cell migration and T cell activation, underlining the importance of LecB antagonism to reactivate the immune response against P. aeruginosa infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Sponsel
- CNRS UPR 3572, IBMC, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Signalling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Yubing Guo
- CNRS UPR 3572, IBMC, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Signalling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lutfir Hamzam
- CNRS UPR 3572, IBMC, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Alice C Lavanant
- CNRS UPR 3572, IBMC, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | | | - Emma Partiot
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France.,Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Quentin Muller
- CNRS UPR 3572, IBMC, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Laboratoire BIOTIS, Inserm U1026, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Julien Rottura
- CNRS UPR 3572, IBMC, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Raphael Gaudin
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France.,Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Dirk Hauck
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Alexander Titz
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Vincent Flacher
- CNRS UPR 3572, IBMC, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Winfried Römer
- Signalling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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3
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Meiers J, Rox K, Titz A. Lectin-Targeted Prodrugs Activated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa for Self-Destructive Antibiotic Release. J Med Chem 2022; 65:13988-14014. [PMID: 36201248 PMCID: PMC9619409 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
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Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections
are characterized by biofilm formation, a major virulence factor of P. aeruginosa and cause of extensive drug resistance.
Fluoroquinolones are effective antibiotics but are linked to severe
side effects. The two extracellular P. aeruginosa-specific lectins LecA and LecB are key structural biofilm components
and can be exploited for targeted drug delivery. In this work, several
fluoroquinolones were conjugated to lectin probes by cleavable peptide
linkers to yield lectin-targeted prodrugs. Mechanistically, these
conjugates therefore remain non-toxic in the systemic distribution
and will be activated to kill only once they have accumulated at the
infection site. The synthesized prodrugs proved stable in the presence
of host blood plasma and liver metabolism but rapidly released the
antibiotic cargo in the presence of P. aeruginosa in a self-destructive manner in vitro. Furthermore, the prodrugs
showed good absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination
(ADME) properties and reduced toxicity in vitro, thus establishing
the first lectin-targeted antibiotic prodrugs against P. aeruginosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joscha Meiers
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Katharina Rox
- Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, Germany.,Chemical Biology (CBIO), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Alexander Titz
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
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4
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Characterization of host-pathogen-device interactions in Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection of breast implants. Plast Reconstr Surg 2022; 150:260e-271e. [PMID: 35653545 DOI: 10.1097/prs.0000000000009315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) accounts for 7%-22% of breast implant-associated infections (BIAIs), which can result in reconstructive failures and explantation. Investigating host-pathogen-device interactions in mice and patient samples will improve our understanding of colonization mechanisms, for targeted treatments and clinical guidelines. METHODS Mice with and without implants (Mentor®) were infected with PAO1 lab strain or BIP2 or BIP16 clinical strains and sacrificed at 1 day or 7 days post-infection (dpi) to evaluate for colonization of implants and underlying tissues via colony-forming unit (CFU) enumeration. Immunostaining was performed on mouse implants, human tissue expanders (TE) colonized by BIP2, and acellular dermal matrix (ADM) colonized by BIP16. RESULTS Colonization of tissues and smooth implants by P. aeruginosa was strain-dependent: at 1dpi, all strains acutely infected tissues with and without implants with colonization levels reflecting growth rates of individual strains. At 7dpi, PAO1 caused colonization of ~105 CFUs/100mg of tissue but required implant presence, while in mice infected with BIP2/BIP16, CFUs were below the limit of detection with or without implants. Immunofluorescence staining of mouse implants, however, demonstrated continued presence of BIP2 and BIP16. Staining showed co-localization of all strains with fibrinogen, collagen I and collagen III on mouse and human samples. CONCLUSIONS The trajectory of P. aeruginosa in BIAIs was strain-dependent and strains could exhibit acute symptomatic or chronic asymptomatic colonization. With strains causing clinical symptoms, the presence of an implant significantly worsened infection. For asymptomatic colonizers, further studies investigating their long-term impacts, especially during periods of immunosuppression in hosts, are needed.
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5
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The Lectin LecB Induces Patches with Basolateral Characteristics at the Apical Membrane to Promote Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host Cell Invasion. mBio 2022; 13:e0081922. [PMID: 35491830 PMCID: PMC9239240 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00819-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The opportunistic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa can infect mucosal tissues of the human body. To persist at the mucosal barrier, this highly adaptable pathogen has evolved many strategies, including invasion of host cells. Here, we show that the P. aeruginosa lectin LecB binds and cross-links fucosylated receptors at the apical plasma membrane of epithelial cells. This triggers a signaling cascade via Src kinases and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), leading to the formation of patches enriched with the basolateral marker phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3) at the apical plasma membrane. This identifies LecB as a causative bacterial factor for activating this well-known host cell response that is elicited upon apical binding of P. aeruginosa. Downstream from PI3K, Rac1 is activated to cause actin rearrangement and the outgrowth of protrusions at the apical plasma membrane. LecB-triggered PI3K activation also results in aberrant recruitment of caveolin-1 to the apical domain. In addition, we reveal a positive feedback loop between PI3K activation and apical caveolin-1 recruitment, which provides a mechanistic explanation for the previously observed implication of caveolin-1 in P. aeruginosa host cell invasion. Interestingly, LecB treatment also reversibly removes primary cilia. To directly prove the role of LecB for bacterial uptake, we coated bacterium-sized beads with LecB, which drastically enhanced their endocytosis. Furthermore, LecB deletion and LecB inhibition with l-fucose diminished the invasion efficiency of P. aeruginosa bacteria. Taken together, the results of our study identify LecB as a missing link that can explain how PI3K signaling and caveolin-1 recruitment are triggered to facilitate invasion of epithelial cells from the apical side by P. aeruginosa.
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6
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Azimi S, Lewin GR, Whiteley M. The biogeography of infection revisited. Nat Rev Microbiol 2022; 20:579-592. [PMID: 35136217 PMCID: PMC9357866 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-022-00683-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Many microbial communities, including those involved in chronic human infections, are patterned at the micron scale. In this Review, we summarize recent work that has defined the spatial arrangement of microorganisms in infection and begun to demonstrate how changes in spatial patterning correlate with disease. Advances in microscopy have refined our understanding of microbial micron-scale biogeography in samples from humans. These findings then serve as a benchmark for studying the role of spatial patterning in preclinical models, which provide experimental versatility to investigate the interplay between biogeography and pathogenesis. Experimentation using preclinical models has begun to show how spatial patterning influences the interactions between cells, their ability to coexist, their virulence and their recalcitrance to treatment. Future work to study the role of biogeography in infection and the functional biogeography of microorganisms will further refine our understanding of the interplay of spatial patterning, pathogen virulence and disease outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheyda Azimi
- School of Biological Sciences and Center for Microbial Dynamics and Infection, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Gina R Lewin
- Emory-Children's Cystic Fibrosis Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
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7
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Frensch M, Jäger C, Müller PF, Tadić A, Wilhelm I, Wehrum S, Diedrich B, Fischer B, Meléndez AV, Dengjel J, Eibel H, Römer W. Bacterial lectin BambL acts as a B cell superantigen. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:8165-8186. [PMID: 34731252 PMCID: PMC8629787 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-04009-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
B cell superantigens crosslink conserved domains of B cell receptors (BCRs) and cause dysregulated, polyclonal B cell activation irrespective of normal BCR-antigen complementarity. The cells typically succumb to activation-induced cell death, which can impede the adaptive immune response and favor infection. In the present study, we demonstrate that the fucose-binding lectin of Burkholderia ambifaria, BambL, bears functional resemblance to B cell superantigens. By engaging surface glycans, the bacterial lectin activated human peripheral blood B cells, which manifested in the surface expression of CD69, CD54 and CD86 but became increasingly cytotoxic at higher concentrations. The effects were sensitive to BCR pathway inhibitors and excess fucose, which corroborates a glycan-driven mode of action. Interactome analyses in a model cell line suggest BambL binds directly to glycans of the BCR and regulatory coreceptors. In vitro, BambL triggered BCR signaling and induced CD19 internalization and degradation. Owing to the lectin's six binding sites, we propose a BCR activation model in which BambL functions as a clustering hub for receptor glycans, modulates normal BCR regulation, and induces cell death through exhaustive activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Frensch
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School for Molecular and Cellular Biology (IMPRS-MCB), Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christina Jäger
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Peter F Müller
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Annamaria Tadić
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Isabel Wilhelm
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Wehrum
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Britta Diedrich
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Center and University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Beate Fischer
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, CCI and University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ana Valeria Meléndez
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Joern Dengjel
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Center and University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Hermann Eibel
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, CCI and University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Winfried Römer
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Signaling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- International Max Planck Research School for Molecular and Cellular Biology (IMPRS-MCB), Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg, Germany.
- Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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8
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Nascimento da Silva LC, Mendonça JSP, de Oliveira WF, Batista KLR, Zagmignan A, Viana IFT, Dos Santos Correia MT. Exploring lectin-glycan interactions to combat COVID-19: Lessons acquired from other enveloped viruses. Glycobiology 2021; 31:358-371. [PMID: 33094324 PMCID: PMC7665446 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwaa099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of a new human coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has imposed great pressure on the health system worldwide. The presence of glycoproteins on the viral envelope opens a wide range of possibilities for application of lectins to address some urgent problems involved in this pandemic. In this work, we discuss the potential contributions of lectins from non-mammalian sources in the development of several fields associated with viral infections, most notably COVID-19. We review the literature on the use of non-mammalian lectins as a therapeutic approach against members of the Coronaviridae family, including recent advances in strategies of protein engineering to improve their efficacy. The applications of lectins as adjuvants for antiviral vaccines are also discussed. Finally, we present some emerging strategies employing lectins for the development of biosensors, microarrays, immunoassays and tools for purification of viruses from whole blood. Altogether, the data compiled in this review highlights the importance of structural studies aiming to improve our knowledge about the basis of glycan recognition by lectins and its repercussions in several fields, providing potential solutions for complex aspects that are emerging from different health challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís Cláudio Nascimento da Silva
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Microbiana, Laboratório de Patogenicidade Bacteriana, Universidade CEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Amazônia Legal, Laboratório de Patogenicidade Bacteriana, Universidade CEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil
| | - Juliana Silva Pereira Mendonça
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Microbiana, Laboratório de Patogenicidade Bacteriana, Universidade CEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil
| | - Weslley Felix de Oliveira
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife 50.670-901, Brazil
| | - Karla Lílian Rodrigues Batista
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Amazônia Legal, Laboratório de Patogenicidade Bacteriana, Universidade CEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil
| | - Adrielle Zagmignan
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Amazônia Legal, Laboratório de Patogenicidade Bacteriana, Universidade CEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil
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9
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Meiers J, Zahorska E, Röhrig T, Hauck D, Wagner S, Titz A. Directing Drugs to Bugs: Antibiotic-Carbohydrate Conjugates Targeting Biofilm-Associated Lectins of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Med Chem 2020; 63:11707-11724. [PMID: 32924479 PMCID: PMC7586336 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chronic infections by Pseudomonas aeruginosa are characterized by biofilm formation, which effectively enhances resistance toward antibiotics. Biofilm-specific antibiotic delivery could locally increase drug concentration to break antimicrobial resistance and reduce the drug's peripheral side effects. Two extracellular P. aeruginosa lectins, LecA and LecB, are essential structural components for biofilm formation and thus render a possible anchor for biofilm-targeted drug delivery. The standard-of-care drug ciprofloxacin suffers from severe systemic side effects and was therefore chosen for this approach. We synthesized several ciprofloxacin-carbohydrate conjugates and established a structure-activity relationship. Conjugation of ciprofloxacin to lectin probes enabled biofilm accumulation in vitro, reduced the antibiotic's cytotoxicity, but also reduced its antibiotic activity against planktonic cells due to a reduced cell permeability and on target activity. This work defines the starting point for new biofilm/lectin-targeted drugs to modulate antibiotic properties and ultimately break antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joscha Meiers
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Eva Zahorska
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Teresa Röhrig
- Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Drug Design and Optimization (DDOP), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Dirk Hauck
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Stefanie Wagner
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Alexander Titz
- Chemical Biology of Carbohydrates (CBCH), Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (DZIF), Standort Hannover-Braunschweig, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry, Saarland University, D-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
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