Quantitative Analysis of 18F-PF-06684511, a Novel PET Radioligand for Selective β-Secretase 1 Imaging, in Nonhuman Primate Brain

Environmental exposures and the etiopathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease: The potential role of BACE1 as a critical neurotoxic target

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a major public health crisis due to devastating cognitive symptoms, a lack of curative treatments, and increasing prevalence. Most cases are sporadic (>95% of cases) after the age of 65 years, implicating an important role of environmental factors in disease pathogenesis. Environmental neurotoxicants have been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson's Disease and AD. Animal models of AD and in vitro studies have shed light on potential neuropathological mechanisms, yet the biochemical and molecular underpinnings of AD-relevant environmental neurotoxicity remain poorly understood. Beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is a potentially critical pathogenic target of environmentally induced neurotoxicity. BACE1 clearly has a critical role in AD pathophysiology: It is required for amyloid beta production and expression and activity of BACE1 are increased in the AD brain. Though the literature on BACE1 in response to environmental insults is limited, current studies, along with extensive AD neurobiology literature suggest that BACE1 deserves attention as an important neurotoxic target. Here, we critically review research on environmental neurotoxicants such as metals, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, polyfluoroalkyl substances, heterocyclic aromatic amines, advanced glycation end products, and acrolein that modulate BACE1 and potential mechanisms of action. Though more research is needed to clearly understand whether BACE1 is a critical mediator of AD-relevant neurotoxicity, available reports provide convincing evidence that BACE1 is altered by environmental risk factors associated with AD pathology, implying that BACE1 inhibition and its use as a biomarker should be considered in AD management and research.

Sample preparation techniques for protein binding measurement in radiopharmaceutical approaches: A short review

Plasma protein binding (PPB) measurement is a key step in radiopharmaceutical studies for the development of positron emission tomography (PET) radioligands. PPB refers to the binding degree of a radioligand, radiotracer, or drug to blood plasma proteins or tissues after administration into the body. Several techniques have been successfully developed and applied for PPB measurement of PET radioligands. However, there is room for progress among these techniques in relation to duration time, adaptability with nonpolar radioligands, in vivo measurement, specificity, and selectivity. This mini review gives a brief overview of advances, limitations, and prospective applications of commercially-available PPB methods.

PET imaging of beta-secretase 1 in the human brain: radiation dosimetry, quantification, and test-retest examination of [18F]PF-06684511

Purpose

Beta-secretase 1 (BACE1) enzyme is implicated in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease. [¹⁸F]PF-06684511 is a positron emission tomography (PET) radioligand for imaging BACE1. Despite favorable brain kinetic properties, the effective dose (ED) of [¹⁸F]PF-06684511 estimated in non-human primates was relatively high. This study was therefore designed to evaluate the whole-body distribution, dosimetry, quantification, and test-retest reliability of imaging brain BACE1 with [¹⁸F]PF-06684511 in healthy volunteers.

Methods

Five subjects were studied for the dosimetry study. Whole-body PET was performed for 366 min with 4 PET-CT sessions. Estimates of the absorbed radiation dose were calculated using the male adult model. Eight subjects participated in the test-retest study. Brain PET measurements were conducted for 123 min with an interval of 5 to 19 days between test and retest conditions. The total distribution volume (V_T) was estimated with one-tissue (1T), two-tissue (2T), compartment model (CM), and graphical analysis. Test-retest variability (TRV) and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of V_T were calculated as reliability measures.

Results

In the dosimetry study, the highest uptake was found in the liver (25.2 ± 2.3 %ID at 0.5 h) and the largest dose was observed in the pancreas (92.9 ± 52.2 μSv/MBq). The calculated ED was 24.7 ± 0.8 μSv/MBq. In the test-retest study, 2TCM described the time-activity curves well. V_T (2TCM) was the highest in the anterior cingulate cortex (6.28 ± 1.09 and 6.85 ± 0.81) and the lowest in the cerebellum (4.23 ± 0.88 and 4.20 ± 0.75). Mean TRV and ICC of V_T (2TCM) were 16.5% (12.4–20.5%) and 0.496 (0.291–0.644).

Conclusion

The ED of [¹⁸F]PF-06684511 was similar to other ¹⁸F radioligands, allowing repeated PET measurements. 2TCM was the most appropriate quantification method. TRV of V_T was similar to other radioligands without a reference region, albeit with lower ICC. These data indicated that [¹⁸F]PF-06684511 is a suitable radioligand to measure BACE1 level in the human brain.

Trial registration

EudraCT 2016-001110-19 (registered 2016-08-08)

Radiosynthesis of a carbon-11 labeled tetrahydrobenzisoxazole derivative as a new PET probe for γ-secretase imaging in Alzheimer's disease

To develop PET radiotracers for imaging of Alzheimer's disease, a new carbon-11 labeled potent and selective γ-secretase modulator (GSM) has been synthesized. The reference standard tetrahydrobenzisoxazole derivative 8 and its desmethylated precursor 9 were synthesized from cyclohex-2-en-1-one and 3-hydroxy-4-nitrobenzaldehyde in eight and nine steps with 11% and 5% overall chemical yield, respectively. The radiotracer [¹¹C]8 was prepared from its corresponding precursor 9 with [¹¹C]CH₃OTf through O-¹¹C-methylation and isolated by RP-HPLC combined with SPE in 45-50% radiochemical yield, based on [¹¹C]CO₂ and decay corrected to EOB. The radiochemical purity was >99%, and the molar activity (A_m) at EOB was 555-740 GBq/μmol.