Lipid nanoparticles as an emerging platform for cannabinoid delivery: physicochemical optimization and biocompatibility

Combining the potential of 3D printed buccal films and nanostructured lipid carriers for personalised cannabidiol delivery

Cannabidiol (CBD) has been recognized for its numerous therapeutic benefits, such as neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory effects, and cardioprotection. However, CBD has some limitations, including unpredictable pharmacokinetics and low oral bioavailability. To overcome the challenges associated with CBD delivery, we employed Design of Experiments (DoE), lipid carriers, and 3D printing techniques to optimize and develop buccal film loaded with CBD-NLCs. Three-factor Box-Behnken Design was carried out to optimise the NLCs and analyse the effect of independent factors on dependent factors. The emulsification-ultrasonication technique was used to prepare the NLCs. A pressure-assisted micro-syringe printing technique was used to produce the films. The produced films were studied for physicochemical, and mechanical properties, release profiles, and predicted in vivo performance. The observed particle size of the NLCs ranged from 12.17 to 84.91 nm whereas the PDI varied from 0.099 to 0.298. Lipid and sonication time positively affected the particle size whereas the surfactant concentration was inversely related. CBD was incorporated into the optimal formulation and the observed particle size, PDI, and zeta potential for the CBD-NLCs were 94.2 ± 0.47 nm, 0.11 ± 0.01 and - 11.8 ± 0.52 mV. Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC)-based gel containing the CBD-NLCs was prepared and used as a feed for 3D printing. The CBD-NLCs film demonstrated a slow and sustained in vitro release profile (84. 11 ± 7.02% in 6 h). The predicted AUC0-10 h, Cmax, and Tmax were 201.5 µg·h/L, 0.74 µg/L, and 1.28 h for a film with 0.4 mg of CBD, respectively. The finding demonstrates that a buccal film of CBD-NLCs can be fabricated using 3D printing.

A two-pronged approach against glioblastoma: drug repurposing and nanoformulation design for in situ-controlled release

Glioblastoma (GB) is one of the most lethal types of neoplasms. Its biologically aggressive nature and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) limit the efficacy of standard therapies. Several strategies are currently being developed to both overcome the BBB and deliver drugs site specifically to tumor cells. This work hypothesizes a two-pronged approach to tackle GB: drug repurposing with celecoxib (CXB) and a nanoformulation using ultra-small nanostructured lipid carriers (usNLCs). CXB antitumor druggable activity was inspected bioinformatically and screened in four glioma cell lines aiming at the comparison with temozolomide (TMZ), as standard of care. Delving into formulation design, it was tailored aiming at (i) improving the drug solubility/loading properties, (ii) assigning a thermal-triggerable drug release based on a lipid matrix with a low melting point, and (iii) enhancing the cytotoxic effect by selecting a template targetable to tumor cells. For this purpose, an integrated analysis of the critical material attributes (CMAs), critical process parameters (CPPs), and critical quality attributes (CQAs) was conducted under the umbrella of a quality by design approach. CMAs that demonstrate a high-risk level for the final quality and performance of the usNLCs include the drug solubility in lipids (solid and liquid), the lipid composition (envisioning a thermoresponsive approach), the ratio between lipids (solid vs. liquid), and the surfactant type and concentration. Particle size was shown to be governed by the interaction lipid-surfactant followed by surfactant type. The drug encapsulation did not influence colloidal characteristics, making it a promising carrier for lipophilic drugs. In general, usNLCs exhibited a controlled drug release during the 72 h at 37 °C with a final release of ca. 25%, while at 45 °C this was doubled. The in vitro cellular performance depended on the surfactant type and lipid composition, with the formulations containing a sole solid lipid (Suppocire® NB) and Kolliphor® RH40 as surfactant being the most cytotoxic. usNLCs with an average diameter of ca. 70 nm and a narrow size distribution (PdI lower than 0.2) were yielded, exhibiting high stability, drug protection, sustained and thermo-sensitive release properties, and high cytotoxicity to glioma cells, meeting the suitable CQAs for parenteral administration. This formulation may pave the way to a multi-addressable purpose to improve GB treatment.

Influence of a Transparent and Edible Coating of Encapsulated Cannabidiol Nanoparticles on the Quality and Shelf Life of Strawberries

Cannabidiol (CBD) has been shown to have antioxidant and antibacterial effects. The investigation into CBD's potential as an antioxidant and antibacterial agent, meanwhile, is still in its initial stages. The study goals were to prepare encapsulated cannabidiol isolate (eCBDi), evaluate the effect of eCBDi edible active coatings on the physicochemical properties of strawberries, and determine whether CBD and sodium alginate coatings could be used as a postharvest treatment to promote antioxidation and antimicrobial activity and prolong the strawberry shelf life. A well-designed edible coating on the strawberry surface was achieved using eCBDi nanoparticles in combination with a sodium alginate polysaccharide-based solution. Strawberries were examined for their visual appearance and quality parameters. In the results, a significantly delayed deterioration was observed in terms of weight loss, total acidity, pH, microbial activity, and antioxidant activity for coated strawberries compared to the control. This study demonstrates the capability of eCBDi nanoparticles as an efficient active food coating agent.

An update of nano-based drug delivery systems for cannabinoids: Biopharmaceutical aspects & therapeutic applications

Nanotechnology has been widely used to improve stability, efficacy, release control and biopharmaceutical aspects of natural and synthetic cannabinoids. In this review, the main types of cannabinoid-based nanoparticles (NPs) reported so far are addressed, taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of each system. Formulation, preclinical and clinical studies performed with colloidal carriers were individually analyzed. Lipid-based nanocarriers have been recognized for their high biocompatibility and ability to improve both solubility and bioavailability. Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol-loaded lipid systems designed to treat glaucoma, for example, showed superior in vivo efficacy in comparison to market formulations. The analyzed studies have shown that product performance can be modulated by varying particle size and composition. In the case of self-nano-emulsifying drug delivery systems, the reduced particle size shortens the time to reach high plasma concentrations while the incorporation of metabolism inhibitors extends the plasma circulation time. The use of long alkyl chain lipids in NP formulations, in turn, is strategized to achieve intestinal lymphatic absorption. Polymer NPs have been prioritized when a sustained or site-specific cannabinoid release is desirable (e.g., CNS-affecting diseases/cancer). The functionalization of the surface of polymer NPs makes their action even more selective whereas surface charge modulation is highlighted to provide mucoadhesion. The present study identified promising systems for targeted applications, making the process of optimizing new formulations more effective and faster. Although NPs have shown a promising role in the treatment of several difficult-to-treat diseases, more translational studies should be performed to confirm the benefits reported here.

Recent Progress of Lipid Nanoparticles-Based Lipophilic Drug Delivery: Focus on Surface Modifications

Numerous drugs have emerged to treat various diseases, such as COVID-19, cancer, and protect human health. Approximately 40% of them are lipophilic and are used for treating diseases through various delivery routes, including skin absorption, oral administration, and injection. However, as lipophilic drugs have a low solubility in the human body, drug delivery systems (DDSs) are being actively developed to increase drug bioavailability. Liposomes, micro-sponges, and polymer-based nanoparticles have been proposed as DDS carriers for lipophilic drugs. However, their instability, cytotoxicity, and lack of targeting ability limit their commercialization. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have fewer side effects, excellent biocompatibility, and high physical stability. LNPs are considered efficient vehicles of lipophilic drugs owing to their lipid-based internal structure. In addition, recent LNP studies suggest that the bioavailability of LNP can be increased through surface modifications, such as PEGylation, chitosan, and surfactant protein coating. Thus, their combinations have an abundant utilization potential in the fields of DDSs for carrying lipophilic drugs. In this review, the functions and efficiencies of various types of LNPs and surface modifications developed to optimize lipophilic drug delivery are discussed.

Cannabis as a potential compound against various malignancies, legal aspects, advancement by exploiting nanotechnology and clinical trials

Various preclinical and clinical studies exhibited the potential of cannabis against various diseases, including cancer and related pain. Subsequently, many efforts have been made to establish and develop cannabis-related products and make them available as prescription products. Moreover, FDA has already approved some cannabis-related products, and more advancement in this aspect is still going on. However, the approved product of cannabis is in oral dosage form, which exerts various limitations to achieve maximum therapeutic effects. A considerable translation is on a hike to improve bioavailability, and ultimately, the therapeutic efficacy of cannabis by the employment of nanotechnology. Besides the well-known psychotropic effects of cannabis upon the use at high doses, literature has also shown the importance of cannabis and its constituents in minimising the lethality of cancer in the preclinical models. This review discusses the history of cannabis, its legal aspect, safety profile, the mechanism by which cannabis combats with cancer, and the advancement of clinical therapy by exploiting nanotechnology. A brief discussion related to the role of cannabinoid in various cancers has also been incorporated. Lastly, the information regarding completed and ongoing trials have also been elaborated.

Recent advances in nanoplatforms for the treatment of neuropathic pain

STUDY DESIGN

Narrative review.

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to summarize the literature on nanoplatforms in spinal cord injury (SCI) and describe their effect in facilitating experiments for SCI. Currently, the primary clinical treatment for neuropathic pain (NP) is drug therapy, but these traditional drugs have many disadvantages, such as high dose, rapid clearance from the circulatory system, off-target side effects, and cytotoxicity. Moreover, the treatment for NP is complicated by the existence of blood-brain barrier. In recent years, nanomedicine has been receiving increased attention; this novel modality could help deliver drugs to treat NP via nanoplatforms, making it a promising alternative therapy. The use of nanoplatforms can enhance pharmaceutic effectiveness by either avoiding rapid clearance from the blood or ensuring adequate concentration in the lesion.

METHODS

A literature review was conducted, with a focus on nanoplatforms that have been described in the experimental studies of neuropathic pain.

RESULTS

We provide a brief description of the roles of liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles, micelles, and dendrimers in the treatment of NP and discuss the prospective development of the nanoplatform system for NP.

CONCLUSION

The emergence of various nanoplatform drug delivery systems can provide an advantageous resource tool for real-time diagnosis and effective treatment of SCI-related NP.

Medicinal Cannabis Pharmacokinetics and Potential Methods of Delivery

The evidence of cannabis exhibiting polypharmacological properties has been accumulating for the past few decades, particularly for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory abilities. However, inconsistent dosage forms and erratic absorption levels prevent medicinal cannabis products from becoming mainstream recommendations for pain management. Current cannabis products fail to address the undesirable characteristics associated with cannabinoids such as low solubility, poor bioavailability, and lack of specificity, all of which contribute to low therapeutic effect. In this narrative view, the pharmacokinetics of cannabis products and possible methods of drug delivery, in the form of carrier systems, will be explored. The incorporation of cannabinoids into carrier systems provides an opportunity to improve absorption levels, increase bioavailability and reduce adverse events allowing for a greater therapeutic effect.

Enhanced alveo pulmonary deposition of nebulized ciclesonide for attenuating airways inflammations: a strategy to overcome metered dose inhaler drawbacks

Ciclesonide (CIC), an inhaled corticosteroid for bronchial asthma is currently available as metered dose inhaler (CIC–MDI) which possesses a major challenge in the management of the elderly, critically ill patients and children. In this work, nebulized CIC nano-structure lipid particles (CIC-NLPs) were prepared and evaluated for their deep pulmonary delivery and cytotoxicity to provide additional clinical benefits to patients in controlled manner and lower dose. The bio-efficacy following nebulization in ovalbumin (OVA) induced asthma Balb/c mice compared to commercial (CIC–MDI) was also assessed. The developed NLPs of 222.6 nm successfully entrapped CIC (entrapment efficiency 93.3%) and exhibited favorable aerosolization efficiency (mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) 2.03 μm and fine particle fraction (FPF) of 84.51%) at lower impactor stages indicating deep lung deposition without imparting any cytotoxic effect up to a concentration of 100 μg/ml. The nebulization of 40 µg dose of the developed CIC-NLPs revealed significant therapeutic impact in the mitigation of the allergic airways inflammations when compared to 80 µg dose of the commercial CIC–MDI inhaler (Alvesco^®). Superior anti-inflammatory and antioxidative stress effects characterized by significant decrease (p< .0001) in inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and 13, serum IgE levels, malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α, and activated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activity were obvious with concomitant increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Histological examination with inhibition of inflammatory cell infiltration in the respiratory tract was correlated well with observed biochemical improvement.

ACPA decreases non-small cell lung cancer line growth through Akt/PI3K and JNK pathways in vitro

Therapeutic agents used for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) have limited curative efficacy and may trigger serious adverse effects. Cannabinoid ligands exert antiproliferative effect and induce apoptosis on numerous epithelial cancers. We confirmed that CB1 receptor (CB1R) is expressed in NSCLC cells in this study. Arachidonoylcyclopropylamide (ACPA) as a synthetic, CB1R-specific ligand decreased proliferation rate in NSCLC cells by WST-1 analysis and real-time proliferation assay (RTCA). The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) dose of ACPA was calculated as 1.39 × 10-12 M. CB1 antagonist AM281 inhibited the antiproliferative effect of ACPA. Flow cytometry and ultrastructural analyzes revealed significant early and late apoptosis with diminished cell viability. Nano-immunoassay and metabolomics data on activation status of CB1R-mediated pro-apoptotic pathways found that ACPA inhibited Akt/PI3K pathway, glycolysis, TCA cycle, amino acid biosynthesis, and urea cycle and activated JNK pathway. ACPA lost its chemical stability after 24 hours tested by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) assay. A novel ACPA-PCL nanoparticle system was developed by nanoprecipitation method and characterized. Sustained release of ACPA-PCL nanoparticles also reduced proliferation of NSCLC cells. Our results demonstrated that low dose ACPA and ACPA-PCL nanoparticle system harbor opportunities to be developed as a novel therapy in NSCLC patients that require further in vivo studies beforehand to validate its anticancer effect.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanomaterial-based treatment options for pain management: a review

Neuropathic pain is one of the most intense types of chronic pain; it constitutes a pervasive complaint throughout the public health system. With few effective treatments, it remains a significant challenge. Commercially available drugs for neuropathic pain are still limited and have disappointing efficacy. Therefore, chronic neuropathic pain imposes a tremendous burden on patients' quality of life. Recently, the introduction and application of nanotechnology in multiple fields has accelerated the development of new drugs. This review highlights the application of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanomaterial-based vehicles for drug delivery and how they improve the therapeutic outcomes for neuropathic pain treatment. Finally, future developments for pain research and effective management are presented.

Enhancing Efficacy, Performance, and Reliability of Cannabis Edibles: Insights from Lipid Bioavailability Studies

The legal sale of cannabis-enriched foods and beverages for medical or recreational purposes is increasing in many states and countries, especially in North America and Europe. These food-based cannabis delivery systems vary considerably in their compositions and structures, ranging from low-viscosity watery beverages to solid fatty chocolates. The rate and extent of release of the bioactive components in cannabis within the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) affect their health and psychoactive effects. Studies with other types of hydrophobic bioactives, such as nutraceuticals and vitamins, have shown that food composition and structure have a major impact on their bioaccessibility, transformation, and absorption within the GIT, thereby influencing their bioavailability and bioactivity. This review outlines how insights on the bioavailability of other lipophilic bioactives can be used to facilitate the design of more efficacious and consistent cannabis-enriched products intended for oral consumption. In particular, the importance of food-matrix composition (such as fat type and level) and structural organization (such as fat domain dimensions) are discussed.

The influence of nanocarrier architectures on antitumor efficacy of docetaxel nanoparticles

To study the structural influence, hybrid amphiphilic copolymer (G2C₁₈) and linear amphiphilic copolymer (PEG₄₅C₁₈) were utilized to prepare docetaxel (DTX)-loaded nanoparticles through an antisolvent precipitation method. The different architectures of the hydrophilic portion affected the particle sizes significantly, and then induced the different antitumor activity. Compared with DTX/PEG₄₅C₁₈ nanoparticles, the antitumor efficacy of DTX/G2C₁₈ nanoparticles was significantly enhanced, the IC₅₀ value was 2.1-fold lower in vitro, and the inhibition rate was 1.3-fold higher in vivo. These results suggested that the antitumor activity was significantly affected by the architecture of the nanocarriers, and should be considered when nanocarriers are designed.

Nanocarrier branched structure affects the particle size of drug-loaded nanoparticles and further induces different antitumor efficacy.

Cannabinoid Delivery Systems for Pain and Inflammation Treatment

There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that cannabinoids are beneficial for a range of clinical conditions, including pain, inflammation, epilepsy, sleep disorders, the symptoms of multiple sclerosis, anorexia, schizophrenia and other conditions. The transformation of cannabinoids from herbal preparations into highly regulated prescription drugs is therefore progressing rapidly. The development of such drugs requires well-controlled clinical trials to be carried out in order to objectively establish therapeutic efficacy, dose ranges and safety. The low oral bioavailability of cannabinoids has led to feasible methods of administration, such as the transdermal route, intranasal administration and transmucosal adsorption, being proposed. The highly lipophilic nature of cannabinoids means that they are seen as suitable candidates for advanced nanosized drug delivery systems, which can be applied via a range of routes. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery strategies have flourished in several therapeutic fields in recent years and numerous drugs have reached the market. This review explores the most recent developments, from preclinical to advanced clinical trials, in the cannabinoid delivery field, and focuses particularly on pain and inflammation treatment. Likely future directions are also considered and reported.

Recent Advances in Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of Anti-Inflammatory Phytocompounds

Phytocompounds have been used in medicine for decades owing to their potential in anti-inflammatory applications. However, major difficulties in achieving sustained delivery of phyto-based drugs are related to their low solubility and cell penetration, and high instability. To overcome these disadvantages, nanosized delivery technologies are currently in use for sustained and enhanced delivery of phyto-derived bioactive compounds in the pharmaceutical sector. This review focuses on the recent advances in nanocarrier-mediated drug delivery of bioactive molecules of plant origin in the field of anti-inflammatory research. In particular, special attention is paid to the relationship between structure and properties of the nanocarrier and phytodrug release behavior.

Lysozyme-loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles: preparation, characterization and colloidal stability evaluation

CONTEXT

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPNPs) are polymeric nanoparticles enveloped by lipid layers, which have emerged as a potent therapeutic nanocarrier alternative to liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this work was to develop, characterize and evaluate LPNPs to deliver a model protein, lysozyme.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lysozyme-loaded LPNPs were prepared by using the modified w/o/w double-emulsion-solvent-evaporation method. Poly-ɛ-caprolactone (PCL) was used as polymeric core material and tripalmitin:lechitin mixture was used to form a lipid shell around the LPNPs. LPNPs were evaluated for particle size distribution, zeta potential, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro drug release, stability and cytotoxicity.

RESULTS

The DLS measurement results showed that the particle size of LPNPs ranged from 58.04 ± 1.95 nm to 2009.00 ± 0.52 nm. The AFM and TEM images of LPNPs demonstrate that LPNPs are spherical in shape. The protein-loading capacity of LPNPs ranged from 5.81% to 60.32%, depending on the formulation parameters. LPNPs displayed a biphasic drug release pattern with a burst release within 1 h, followed by sustained release afterward. Colloidal stability results of LPNPs in different media showed that particle size and zeta potential values of particles did not change significantly in all media except of FBS 100% for 120 h. Finally, the results of a cellular uptake study showed that LPNPs were significantly taken up by 83.3% in L929 cells.

CONCLUSION

We concluded that the LPNPs prepared with PCL as polymeric core material and tripalmitin:lechitin mixture as lipid shell should be a promising choice for protein delivery.