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Vaughns JD, Conklin LS, Long Y, Zheng P, Faruque F, Green DJ, van den Anker JN, Burckart GJ. Obesity and Pediatric Drug Development. J Clin Pharmacol 2018; 58:650-661. [PMID: 29350758 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
There is a lack of dosing guidelines for use in obese children. Moreover, the impact of obesity on drug safety and clinical outcomes is poorly defined. The paucity of information needed for the safe and effective use of drugs in obese patients remains a problem, even after drug approval. To assess the current incorporation of obesity as a covariate in pediatric drug development, the pediatric medical and clinical pharmacology reviews under the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Amendments Act of 2007 and the FDA Safety and Innovation Act (FDASIA) of 2012 were reviewed for obesity studies. FDA labels were also reviewed for statements addressing obesity in pediatric patients. Forty-five drugs studied in pediatric patients under the FDA Amendments Act were found to have statements and key words in the medical and clinical pharmacology reviews and labels related to obesity. Forty-four products were identified similarly with pediatric studies under FDASIA. Of the 89 product labels identified, none provided dosing information related to obesity. The effect of body mass index on drug pharmacokinetics was mentioned in only 4 labels. We conclude that there is little information presently available to provide guidance related to dosing in obese pediatric patients. Moving forward, regulators, clinicians, and the pharmaceutical industry should consider situations in drug development in which the inclusion of obese patients in pediatric trials is necessary to facilitate the safe and effective use of new drug products in the obese pediatric population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle D Vaughns
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pain, and Perioperative Medicine, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Laurie S Conklin
- Department of Gastroenterology, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ying Long
- School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Panli Zheng
- School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Fahim Faruque
- School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Dionna J Green
- Office of Clinical Pharmacology, Office of Translational Sciences, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - John N van den Anker
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC, USA.,Division of Paediatric Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland, USA
| | - Gilbert J Burckart
- Office of Clinical Pharmacology, Office of Translational Sciences, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA
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van Rongen A, Välitalo PAJ, Peeters MYM, Boerma D, Huisman FW, van Ramshorst B, van Dongen EPA, van den Anker JN, Knibbe CAJ. Morbidly Obese Patients Exhibit Increased CYP2E1-Mediated Oxidation of Acetaminophen. Clin Pharmacokinet 2017; 55:833-847. [PMID: 26818482 PMCID: PMC4916199 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-015-0357-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Acetaminophen (paracetamol) is mainly metabolized via glucuronidation and sulphation, while the minor pathway through cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2E1 is held responsible for hepatotoxicity. In obese patients, CYP2E1 activity is reported to be induced, thereby potentially worsening the safety profile of acetaminophen. The aim of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen and its metabolites (glucuronide, sulphate, cysteine and mercapturate) in morbidly obese and non-obese patients. Methods Twenty morbidly obese patients (with a median total body weight [TBW] of 140.1 kg [range 106–193.1 kg] and body mass index [BMI] of 45.1 kg/m2 [40–55.2 kg/m2]) and eight non-obese patients (with a TBW of 69.4 kg [53.4–91.7] and BMI of 21.8 kg/m2 [19.4–27.4]) received 2 g of intravenous acetaminophen. Fifteen blood samples were collected per patient. Population pharmacokinetic modelling was performed using NONMEM. Results In morbidly obese patients, the median area under the plasma concentration–time curve from 0 to 8 h (AUC0–8h) of acetaminophen was significantly smaller (P = 0.009), while the AUC0–8h ratios of the glucuronide, sulphate and cysteine metabolites to acetaminophen were significantly higher (P = 0.043, 0.004 and 0.010, respectively). In the model, acetaminophen CYP2E1-mediated clearance (cysteine and mercapturate) increased with lean body weight [LBW] (population mean [relative standard error] 0.0185 L/min [15 %], P < 0.01). Moreover, accelerated formation of the cysteine and mercapturate metabolites was found with increasing LBW (P < 0.001). Glucuronidation clearance (0.219 L/min [5 %]) and sulphation clearance (0.0646 L/min [6 %]) also increased with LBW (P < 0.001). Conclusion Obesity leads to lower acetaminophen concentrations and earlier and higher peak concentrations of acetaminophen cysteine and mercapturate. While a higher dose may be anticipated to achieve adequate acetaminophen concentrations, the increased CYP2E1-mediated pathway may preclude this dose adjustment. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s40262-015-0357-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne van Rongen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, St. Antonius Hospital, Koekoekslaan 1, 3435 CM, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands.,Division of Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Pyry A J Välitalo
- Division of Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mariska Y M Peeters
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, St. Antonius Hospital, Koekoekslaan 1, 3435 CM, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Djamila Boerma
- Department of Surgery, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Fokko W Huisman
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Bert van Ramshorst
- Department of Surgery, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Eric P A van Dongen
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes N van den Anker
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Children's National Medical Center, Washington DC, USA.,Department of Pediatric Pharmacology, University Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland.,Intensive Care and Department of Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus Medical Center-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Catherijne A J Knibbe
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, St. Antonius Hospital, Koekoekslaan 1, 3435 CM, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands. .,Division of Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Michaut A, Moreau C, Robin MA, Fromenty B. Acetaminophen-induced liver injury in obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Liver Int 2014; 34:e171-9. [PMID: 24575957 DOI: 10.1111/liv.12514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although acetaminophen (APAP) is usually considered as a safe drug, this painkiller can lead to acute liver failure after overdoses. Moreover, there is evidence that the maximum recommended dosage can induce hepatic cytolysis in some individuals. Several predisposing factors appear to enhance the risk and severity of APAP-induced liver injury including chronic alcoholic liver disease and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which refers to a large spectrum of hepatic lesions linked to obesity. In contrast, obesity by itself does not seem to be associated with a higher risk of APAP-induced liver injury. Since 1987, seven studies dealt with APAP-induced hepatotoxicity in rodent models of NAFLD and five of them found that this liver disease was associated with higher APAP toxicity. Unfortunately, these studies did not unequivocally established the mechanism(s) whereby NAFLD could favour APAP hepatotoxicity, although some investigations suggested that pre-existent induction of hepatic cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) could play a significant role by increasing the generation of N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), the toxic metabolite of APAP. Moreover, pre-existent mitochondrial dysfunction associated with NAFLD could also be involved. In contrast, some investigations suggested that factors that could reduce the risk and severity of APAP hepatotoxicity in obesity and NAFLD include higher hepatic APAP glucuronidation, reduced CYP3A4 activity and increased volume of body distribution. Thus, the occurrence and the outcome of APAP-induced liver injury in an obese individual with NAFLD might depend on a delicate balance between metabolic factors that can be protective and others that favour large hepatic levels of NAPQI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaïs Michaut
- INSERM, U991, Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
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Merrell MD, Cherrington NJ. Drug metabolism alterations in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Drug Metab Rev 2011; 43:317-34. [PMID: 21612324 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2011.577781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Drug-metabolizing enzymes play a vital role in the elimination of the majority of therapeutic drugs. The major organ involved in drug metabolism is the liver. Chronic liver diseases have been identified as a potential source of significant interindividual variation in metabolism. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease in the United States, affecting between 60 and 90 million Americans, yet the vast majority of NAFLD patients are undiagnosed. NAFLD encompasses a spectrum of pathologies, ranging from steatosis to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and fibrosis. Numerous animal studies have investigated the effects of NAFLD on hepatic gene expression, observing significant alterations in mRNA, protein, and activity levels. Information on the effects of NAFLD in human patients is limited, though several significant investigations have recently been published. Significant alterations in the activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes may affect the clearance of therapeutic drugs, with the potential to result in adverse drug reactions. With the enormous prevalence of NAFLD, it is conceivable that every drug currently on the market is being given to patients with NAFLD. The current review is intended to present the results from both animal models and human patients, summarizing the observed alterations in the expression and activity of the phase I and II drug-metabolizing enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Merrell
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA
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Balada F, Sanchis D, Virgili J, Grasa MM, Monserrat C, Fernández-López JA, Remesar X, Alemany M. Effect of the slimming agent oleoyl-estrone in liposomes on the body weight of rats fed a cafeteria diet. Arch Physiol Biochem 1997; 105:487-95. [PMID: 9439787 DOI: 10.1076/apab.105.5.487.3295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Weaned lean Zucker rats, 21-days old, were fed a cafeteria diet for 70 days. The cafeteria diet-obese rats were infused for 28 days (using miniosmotic pumps) with oleoyl-estrone in liposomes (Merlin-2) at a dose of 3.5 mmol/day.kg. Treatment resulted in loss of body weight: 11.6% (32 g), mainly due to fat: 20.0% (8.8 g), protein 5.2% (2.0 g) and water, preventing further increases in body weight and fat storage. Untreated rats increased their body weight: 7.6% (20 g), lipid: 10.5% (4.2 g) and protein: 13.2% (4.8 g). Plasma glucose, urea, triacylglycerols and cholesterol practically did not change with treatment. Merlin-2 decreased energy intake (to 83.7%) and energy output (to 87.7%, oxygen consumption). Decreases in nitrogen intake were partly compensated by higher digestive efficiency in treated rats. The size of the nitrogen gap was higher in treated rats than in controls. Essentially, protein balance was maintained and slimming was achieved with a minimal loss of body protein. Treated rats selected less carbohydrate, in particular sugars, in their diet than controls, but consumed practically the same protein and lipid. Treatment of cafeteria diet-fed rats with oleoylestrone in liposomes results in sustained loss of body weight--mainly lipid--for up to 28 days. Nitrogen balance is maintained overall. This is achieved through lower food intake--mainly of sugars--and less marked changes in energy output.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Balada
- Centre d'Investigació, Laboratoris S.A.L.V.A.T., S.A., Esplugues de Llobregat, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
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Galinsky RE, Eshima D, Hansen L, Greene J, Dillehay D, Taylor A. Effect of advanced age on p-aminohippurate-induced inhibition of renal tubular secretion in male Fischer 344 rats. Mech Ageing Dev 1990; 56:209-22. [PMID: 2150974 DOI: 10.1016/0047-6374(90)90083-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The effect of aging on glomerular filtration, effective renal plasma flow and on the responsiveness of the renal tubular anion secretory system to inhibition by 4-aminobenzoylglycine (p-aminohippurate, PAH) was examined in young (5-month) and old (22-month) Fischer 344 male rats. Plasma clearance, protein binding and renal extraction of [131I]o-iodohippurate, [125I]iothalamate and HPLC-purified [99mTc]mercaptoacetyltriglycine (MAG3), were used as in vivo probes of renal function. The effect of advanced age, without concomitant PAH, on the disposition of these markers was initially determined in ketamine anesthetized, temperature-maintained male rats, ages 5, 14 and 22 months by means of constant infusion clearance studies. Aging per se decreased (P less than 0.05) the kidney-weight normalized or body weight-normalized GFR and effective renal plasma flow rates. GFR values averaged 1.67, 1.43 and 1.32 ml/min per g kidney for the 5-, 14- and 22-month-old rats, respectively. Kidney- or body weight-normalized clearances of MAG3 and o-iodohippurate showed similar (25-27%) decreases, whereas the absolute values (ml/min) for GFR, o-iodohippurate and MAG3 clearance rates were not altered by aging. The effective filtration fraction, extraction ratio and plasma protein binding were also unchanged by advanced age. Overall, the age-related decreases in renal function were minimal in Fischer-344 rats, compared to other species. Differences in data normalization, species and gender account, in part, for discrepancies observed when comparing results in different studies on the effects of advanced age on renal function. Subsequently, we examined the effect of aging on the renal responsiveness to inhibition of tubular anion secretion using constant rate PAH infusion studies, adjusted for age-related changes in renal function. Aging did not alter PAH-induced inhibition of iodohippurate secretion. Inhibition of MAG3 elimination was more pronounced in the old rats compared to the young controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Galinsky
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City 84112
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Sastre J, Pallardó FV, Llopis J, Furukawa T, Viña JR, Viña J. Glutathione depletion by hyperphagia-induced obesity. Life Sci 1989; 45:183-7. [PMID: 2747425 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(89)90293-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Reduced glutathione (GSH) levels in freeze-clamped livers of rats and mice in which hyperphagia is induced by cafeteria diet are 45% lower than in controls. Freshly isolated hepatocytes from mice fed cafeteria diet show a 45% decrease in GSH concentration and a 54% decrease in oxidized glutathione (GSSG) concentration when compared with controls. The rate of GSH synthesis in isolated hepatocytes from control mice is significantly higher than in those from mice fed cafeteria diet. Oral GSH is effective to prevent the decrease in hepatic GSH levels found in cafeteria fed mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Sastre
- Department of Physiology, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Valencia, Spain
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