IL-17A concentration of seminal plasma and follicular fluid in infertile men and women with various clinical diagnoses

Fluoride-Induced Autophagy and Apoptosis in the Mouse Ovary: Genomic Insights into IL-17 Signaling and Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis

Chronic fluoride (F) exposure is linked to gonadotoxicity in females, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigated fluoride-induced reprotoxicity using advanced genomic profiling. RNA-seq analysis identified significant activation of autophagy, apoptosis, and IL-17 signaling pathways in fluoride-exposed female mice. To explore these mechanisms, F0 pregnant mice were exposed to deionized water (control) or 100 mg/L sodium fluoride (NaF) during gestation and throughout the F1 generation (n = 16 females/group), covering puberty to weaning and maturity. NaF exposure caused significant reductions in body weight, organ coefficients, and pathological indices, with increased ovarian autophagic vacuoles, mitochondrial injuries, and elevated serum/ovary LPS levels in F1 females. qRT-PCR, fluorescent staining, biochemical assays, and Western blotting confirmed the activation of IL-17 signaling, apoptosis, and autophagy. Moreover, 16S rRNA sequencing revealed gut microbiota dysbiosis in NaF-exposed F1 females, potentially exacerbating ovary injury via serum LPS elevation. The gut dysbiosis could justify deteriorated serum LPS levels and its connection to F-induced ovary injury. These findings provide mechanistic insights into fluoride-induced reprotoxicity, emphasizing the interplay of IL-17 signaling, autophagy, and apoptosis in disrupting cellular homeostasis and suggesting potential therapeutic targets.

Exploring the interplay between inflammation and male fertility

Male fertility results from a complex interplay of physiological, environmental, and genetic factors. It is conditioned by the properly developed anatomy of the reproductive system, hormonal regulation balance, and the interplay between different cell populations that sustain an appropriate and functional environment in the testes. Unfortunately, the mechanisms sustaining male fertility are not flawless and their perturbation can lead to infertility. Inflammation is one of the factors that contribute to male infertility. In the testes, it can be brought on by varicocele, obesity, gonadal infections, leukocytospermia, physical obstructions or traumas, and consumption of toxic substances. As a result of prolonged or untreated inflammation, the testicular resident cells that sustain spermatogenesis can suffer DNA damage, lipid and protein oxidation, and mitochondrial dysfunction consequently leading to loss of function in affected Sertoli cells (SCs) and Leydig cells (LCs), and the formation of morphologically abnormal dysfunctional sperm cells that lay in the basis of male infertility and subfertility. This is due mainly to the production and secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) by local immune cells (macrophages, lymphocytes T, mast cells) and tissue-specific cells [SCs, LCs, peritubular myoid cells (PMCs) and germ cells (GCs)]. Depending on the location, duration, and intensity of inflammation, these mediators can exert their toxic effect on different elements of the testes. In this review, we discuss the most prevalent inflammatory factors that negatively affect male fertility and describe the different ways inflammation can impair male reproductive function.

Infertility, IL-17, IL-33 and Microbiome Cross-Talk: The Extended ARIA-MeDALL Hypothesis

Infertility, defined as the inability to obtain pregnancy after 12 months of regular unprotected sexual intercourse, has increased in prevalence over the past decades, similarly to chronic, allergic, autoimmune, or neurodegenerative diseases. A recent ARIA-MeDALL hypothesis has proposed that all these diseases are linked to dysbiosis and to some cytokines such as interleukin 17 (IL-17) and interleukin 33 (IL-33). Our paper suggests that endometriosis, a leading cause of infertility, is linked to endometrial dysbiosis and two key cytokines, IL-17 and IL-33, which interact with intestinal dysbiosis. Intestinal dysbiosis contributes to elevated estrogen levels, a primary factor in endometriosis. Estrogens strongly activate IL-17 and IL-33, supporting the existence of a gut-endometrial axis as a significant contributor to infertility.

Sodium oligomannate's amelioration of reproductive and metabolic phenotypes in a letrozole-induced PCOS-like mouse model depends on the gut microbiome†

It has been well established that there is a connection between polycystic ovary syndrome pathology and gut microbiome dysbiosis. A marine-derived oligosaccharide, GV-971, has been reported to alter gut microbiota and alleviate Aβ amyloidosis. In this study, the effects of GV-971 on polycystic ovary syndrome-like mice were explored. Mice were randomly assigned into four groups: control, letrozole, letrozole + GV-971, and control + GV-971. Glucose metabolism in polycystic ovary syndrome-like mice was ameliorated by GV-971, while the reproductive endocrine disorder of polycystic ovary syndrome-like mice was partially reversed. The messenger ribonucleic acid levels of steroidogenic enzymes in ovaries of polycystic ovary syndrome-like mice were improved. GV-971 restored the fertility of polycystic ovary syndrome-like mice and significantly increase the number of litters. Furthermore, GV-971 treatment effectively mitigated abnormal bile acid metabolism. Notably, after GV-971 intervention, gut microbiota alpha-diversity was considerably raised and the relative abundance of Firmicutes was reduced. In conclusion, the hyperinsulinemia and hyperandrogenemia of polycystic ovary syndrome-like mice were alleviated by GV-971 intervention, which was associated with mitigating bile acid metabolism and modulating gut microbiota.

Plasma-derived from human umbilical cord blood restores ovarian function and improves serum reproductive hormones levels in mice with premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) through cytokines and growth factors

Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) patients experience a decline in ovarian function and a reduction in serum reproductive hormones, leading to a significant impact on the outcomes of assisted reproductive technology. Despite the absence of an effective clinical treatment to restore fertility in POI patients, recent research has indicated that cord blood plasma (CBP) derived from human umbilical cord blood (hUCB) may offer therapeutic benefits for various degenerative diseases. The primary aim of this study is to explore approaches for enhancing ovarian function and serum reproductive hormones through the administration of CBP in a murine model. Initially, hUCB was utilized to obtain CBP (CBP), which was subsequently analyzed for cytokine and growth factor profiles in comparison to adult blood plasma (ABP) by use of flow cytometry. Subsequently, POI mouse models were established through the induction of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide, followed by the injection of CBP into the tail. At 7, 14, and 21 days posttreatment, mouse ovaries and blood were collected, and their estrus cycle, body weight, and ovarian weights were evaluated using precise electronic balance. Finally, ovarian morphology and follicle number were assessed through HE staining, while serum levels of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), estradiol (E2) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) were determined by ELISA. Our study revealed that individuals with CBP exhibited significantly lower concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-β (p < 0.01) and IL-2 (p < 0.05), while displaying elevated levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12P70, IL-17A, IP-10, interferon-γ, and tumor necrosis factor-α (p < 0.01). Furthermore, CBP demonstrated remarkably higher levels of growth factors, including transforming growth factor-β1, vascular endothelial growth factor, and insulin-like growth factor-1 (p < 0.01) than ABP. Notably, our investigation also revealed that CBP restored the content of serum reproductive hormones, such as AMH, E2, and FSH (p < 0.05), and increased the number of primordial and primary follicles (p < 0.01) and decreased the number of luteal and atretic follicles (p < 0.01) in vivo. Our findings suggested that CBP-secreted cytokines and growth factors could be restored POI ovarian function, enhanced serum reproductive hormones and rescued follicular development in vivo. These findings further support the potential of CBP as a promising strategy in clinical applications for POI related infertility.

Immune regulatory cytokines in seminal plasma of healthy men: A scoping review and analysis of variance

OBJECTIVE

Seminal plasma cytokines are associated with fertility and reproductive health, but progressing their clinical utility is hampered by absence of reference data on concentration ranges of relevant cytokines in healthy men. We employed a systematic approach to assemble current evidence on the concentrations of immune regulatory cytokines present in seminal plasma (SP) of normozoospermic and/or fertile men and evaluated the impact of different platform methodologies for cytokine quantification.

EVIDENCE REVIEW

A systematic literature search was performed utilising PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus. Databases were searched from inception until 30th June 2022 inclusive, using combinations of keywords pertaining to seminal fluid and cytokines, and was restricted to human participants. Original data with values reported as concentration of specific cytokines in SP of men clearly defined as fertile or normozoospermic were extracted from studies written in English.

RESULTS

A total of 3769 publications were initially identified, of which 118 fulfilled the eligibility criteria for inclusion. A total of 51 individual cytokines are detectable in SP of healthy men. The number of studies reporting on each cytokine range from 1 to >20. The reported concentrations for many cytokines linked with fertility status, including IL6, CXCL8/IL8, and TNFA, are highly variable between published studies. This is associated with the different immunoassay methodologies utilised and may be exacerbated by a lack of validation of assays to ensure suitability for SP assessment. Due to the large variation between studies, accurate reference ranges for healthy men cannot be determined from the published data.

CONCLUSIONS

The concentrations of cytokines and chemokines detected in SP is inconsistent and highly variable between studies and cohorts, limiting current capacity to define reference ranges for cytokine concentrations in fertile men. The lack of standardisation in methods used to process and store SP, and variation in platforms used to evaluate cytokine abundance, are factors contributing to the observed heterogeneity. To progress the clinical utility of SP cytokine analysis will require standardisation and validation of methodologies so that reference ranges for healthy fertile men can be defined.

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 is elevated and related to interleukin-17 and psychological stress in male infertility: A cross-sectional study

Background

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), interleukin-17 (IL-17) and psychological stress are known to play a role in the pathogenesis of male infertility.

Objective

To assess the association of MMP-9 with IL-17 and psychological stress in infertile men.

Materials and Methods

In this cross-sectional study, 39 men with infertility diagnosed based on semen analysis and 39 subjects with normal semen analysis were included in the study. MMP-9 and IL-17 were estimated in both groups by ELISA. Perceived stress scale was used to assess psychological stress in controls and cases.

Results

In infertile cases, MMP-9 and IL-17 were significantly increased when compared with controls (p = 0.046, p = 0.041 respectively). A significant association of MMP-9 was observed with IL-17 (r = 0.335, p = 0.037) and perceived stress scale (r = 0.329, p = 0.041).

Conclusion

IL-17 and stress increase MMP- 9 levels in infertile men.

Inulin and metformin ameliorate polycystic ovary syndrome via anti-inflammation and modulating gut microbiota in mice

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) represents an endocrine disorder, which is closely related with gut microbiota. Inulin, a kind of probiotics, has been proven to alleviate gut microbiota dysbiosis. Metformin, a biguanide agent, shows beneficial effects on chronic metabolic diseases. Our objective was to assess the effects and associated mechanisms of inulin and metforin on attenuation of PCOS in mice. Mice were divided into 4 groups: control group (CON), model group (MOD), inulin group (INU), metformin group (MET). The last three groups were fed 6 mg of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) per 100 g body weight and 60% high-fat diet to generate mice model. After 21 days of intervention, mice were euthanized and associated indications were investigated. Body weight (BW) and testosterone (T) levels were significantly decreased, but estradiol (E2) levels were increased in INU or MET group, respectively. Ovary HE staining demonstrated that inulin or metformin ameliorated PCOS morphology. Inflammatory indicators from plasma and ovary including TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-17A were decreased in INU or MET group. Moreover, IL-10 in ovary of INU or MET group was increased. Sequencing and analysis of gut microbiota showed that compared to MOD group, Bifidobacterium was increased, but Proteobacteria, Helicobacter and Parasutterella were decreased in INU group. Helicobacter was decreased in MET group. Correlation analysis showed that gut microbiota was correlated with inflammatory factors. Our results revealed that inulin and metformin alleviated PCOS via anti-inflammation and modulating gut microbiota, which may contribute to potential clinical therapy for the disease.

Low-Dose Tacrolimus Prevents Dysregulated Peri-Conceptional Ovarian and Systemic Immune Cellular Homeostasis in Subjects with PCOS

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is characterized by failure of ovulation and is associated with obesity and chronic inflammation. Recent evidence suggests that anomalous activation of ovarian macrophages and numerical and functional deficits in the Th17 (CD4+IL17A+) and the CD4+CD25+CD127^low Tregs plays crucial role in PCOS. We have shown that the pre-pregnancy use of tacrolimus prevents adverse reproductive outcomes in a mouse model of PCOS. Here we used the HFD-NONcNZO mice to test a hypothesized beneficial use of tacrolimus relative to metformin in favorably influencing the ovarian and systemic immune milieux conducive to gestational success in subjects with PCOS. Compared to normative controls, our data revealed an aberrant peri-conceptional suppression of the CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127^low Tregs together with an overexpression of the Th17 T cells and lack of coordinated activation of ovarian macrophages in untreated HFD-dNONcNZO mice. Significant variances in treatment outcomes favoured the use of tacrolimus over metformin in treated mice. Consistent with the human fertility studies, this investigation reveals a beneficial systemic use of tacrolimus (0.1 mg/kg) in promoting early pregnancy in individuals with PCOS and suggests the need for further research into the selective inhibition of IL17A as a plausibly alternative immunotherapeutic approach in the clinical management of infertile individuals with PCOS.

Association of IL-17 and IL-23 follicular fluid concentrations and gene expression profile in cumulus cells from infertile women at risk for ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome

This study determined the association between the levels of interleukin (IL)-17 and IL-23 in follicular fluid (FF), as well as their mRNA levels in cumulus cells from infertile women at risk for ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). In this case-controlled study, the control group (n = 40) was infertile women whose partners had male factor infertility, whereas the case group (n = 40) was infertile women at risk of OHSS. IL-17 and IL-23 concentrations in FF were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method, whereas the mRNA expression levels of IL-17 and IL-23 of cumulus cells were determined using RT-PCR. Significantly higher levels of IL-17 were seen in the case group (p = 0.04), whereas there was no significant difference in IL-23 concentrations between the two groups (p = 0.3). The mRNA levels of IL-17 and IL-23 showed no significant differences. In the case group, there was a positive significant correlation between the IL-23 concentration in FF and the oocyte maturation rates (p = 0.01). In the case group, the number of follicles, MII oocytes, immature oocytes, fertilized oocytes and number of embryos were significantly higher than the control group (p < 0.05). Our findings showed that the mRNA expressions of IL-17 and IL-23 were similar in the two groups, and IL-17 was increased in the case group.

Endometriosis Knowledgebase: a gene-based resource on endometriosis

Endometriosis is a complex, benign, estrogen-dependent gynecological disorder with an incidence of ~10% women in reproductive age. The implantation and growth of endometrial cells outside the uterus leads to the development of endometriosis. Endometriosis is also associated with comorbid conditions like cardiovascular and autoimmune diseases. The absence of non-invasive diagnostic markers, delayed diagnosis, high risk of recurrence of the disease on surgical removal of the tissue and absence of a definitive cure for endometriosis makes it imperative to gain insights into the complex etiology of endometriosis. A plethora of genes identified from blood and endometrial biopsies, involved in different pathways like steroid metabolism, angiogenesis, inflammation, etc. have been associated with endometriosis. However, the exact mechanism and genetic etiology of endometriosis still remain unclear. The polygenic nature of the disease, incongruent phenotypic manifestations in different ethnic populations and information scattered in literature makes it difficult to delineate the sub-network of genes that will aid in disease diagnosis and effective treatment. Endometriosis Knowledgebase is a manually curated database with information on genes associated with endometriosis. It holds information on 831 genes, their associated polymorphisms, gene ontologys, pathways and diseases. Genes in the database are enriched in pathways important for cell signaling, immune regulation and reproduction. A genetic overlap is seen between endometriosis and cancers, endocrine/reproductive, nervous system, immune and metabolic diseases. Network analysis of genes in the Endometriosis Knowledgebase helped predict 13 new candidate genes for endometriosis. These genes were found to be enriched in biological processes associated with endometriosis. The Endometriosis Knowledgebase and incorporated tools for gene and sequence-based analysis will benefit both researchers and clinicians working in the realm of reproductive biology.

The expression of cytokines IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-17A, and TGF-β1 in peripheral blood and follicular fluid of patients testing positive for anti-thyroid autoantibodies and its influence on in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer pregnancy outcomes

The aim of this work was to study the expression of the cytokines IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-17 A, and TGF-β1 in peripheral blood and follicular fluid (FF) of patients positive for antithyroid autoantibodies (ATA⁺) with normal thyroid gland function and the influence of these autoantibodies on in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) pregnancy outcomes. Nineteen patients were in the ATA⁺ group, and 27 patients tested negative for anti-thyroid autoantibody (ATA^-). Blood samples were drawn from the two groups of patients on the oocyte retrieval day and the 5th and 14th days of transplantation; in addition, FF was extracted on the oocyte retrieval day from both groups of patients and tested through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-17 A, and TGF-β1. For the ATA⁺ group, the concentration of IFN-γ increased whereas the concentration of TGF-β1 decreased in peripheral blood on the oocyte retrieval day (p < .05); the concentration of IL-4 decreased in peripheral blood on the 5th and 14th days of transplantation for the ATA⁺ group (p < .05); further, the concentration of IL-17 A increased whereas that of TGF-β1 decreased in FF (p < .05). The ratio of IL-17 A/TGF-β1 in the ATA⁺ group significantly increased in FF and peripheral blood on the oocyte retrieval day and the 14th day of transplantation (p < .05). The ratio of IL-17 A/TGF-β1 in FF of the pregnant patients was significantly lower than in the non-pregnant patients (p < .05). The findings suggested that the ratio between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines was adversely affected; therefore, adverse pregnancy outcomes of patients with ATA⁺ undergoing IVF-ET treatment may be attributed to immunological mechanisms.

Synergy of Paracrine Signaling During Early-Stage Mouse Ovarian Follicle Development In Vitro

Introduction

Paracrine signals, such as soluble cytokines and extracellular matrix cues, are essential for the survival and development of multicellular ovarian follicles. While it is well established that hydrogel-based culture systems successfully support the growth of late-stage follicles for fertility preservation, growing small, early-stage ovarian follicles still proves to be challenging. We hypothesized that paracrine factors secreted from neighboring follicles may be crucial for improving the survival of early-stage follicles in vitro.

Methods

To test our hypothesis, we investigated the bi-directional crosstalk of the paracrine signals, such as cell-secreted cytokines, sex hormones and transcription factors (TFs), in follicles encapsulated and cultured for 12 days in alginate in groups of five (5×) and ten (10×).

Results

The differential profiles of TF activity and secretome during folliculogenesis were analyzed using TRanscriptional Activity CEllular aRray (TRACER) and data-driven multivariate modeling approach. The mechano- and oxygen-responsive TFs, NF-κB and HIF1, exhibited a unique upregulation signature in 10× follicles. Consistently, levels of proangiogenic factors, such as VEGF-A and angiopoietin-2, were significantly higher in 10× follicles than those in 5× follicles, reaching 269.77 and 242.82 pg/mL on the last day of culture. The analysis of TRACER and secreted cytokines also revealed critical early interactions between cytokines and TFs, correlating with the observed phenotypical and functional differences between conditions.

Conclusions

We identified unique signatures of synergism during successful early-stage ovarian follicle development. These findings bring us closer to understanding of mechanisms underlying the downstream effects of interactions between the extracellular microenvironment and early-stage folliculogenesis in vitro.

Advanced oxidation protein products from the follicular microenvironment and their role in infertile women with endometriosis

Endometriosis (EM) is associated with oxidative stress. Advanced oxidation protein products (AOPPs) are novel markers of oxidative stress, which serve an important role as an inflammatory mediator in various chronic diseases. In order to examine the role of AOPPs in infertile women with EM, the present study analyzed the levels of AOPPs, estradiol (E₂) and progesterone (P₄) in the follicular fluid (FF) of 89 women with or without EM undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF). The AOPP concentration in the FF of the EM group was significantly higher when compared with that of the control group (51.5±22.4 vs. 41.8±18.3 µmol/l; P<0.05). However, the FF P₄ levels and blastocyst rate were significantly lower in the EM group compared with the control group (P₄:1,249.6±465.4 vs. 1,752.7±565.4 ng/ml, P<0.05; blastocyst rate: 0.511±0.322 vs. 0.662±0.278; P<0.05). The AOPP concentration and P₄ level in the FF presented a significant negative correlation in the EM and control groups, as well as in the total cohort of patients (EM group: r=-0.406, P=0.006; control group: r=-0.315, P=0.035; total: r=-0.421, P<0.001). In addition, there was a significant negative correlation between the FF AOPP concentrations and blastocyst rate in the EM group and in the total cohort (EM group: r=-0.376, P=0.012; total: r=-0.367, P<0.001). In conclusion, these results suggested that AOPPs may be a potentially effective marker for predicting the oocyte quality and outcomes of IVF in infertile women with EM.

Th2 Cells and Th17 Cells in the Development of Endometriosis – Possible Roles of Interleukin-4 and Interleukin-17A

Endometriosis is recognized as an inflammatory disease in which inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β and TNFα, play important roles. Immunological factors are also suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of endometriosis. This review provides comprehensive knowledge about helper T cell (Th cell) and its specific cytokines in endometriosis. A series of our studies demonstrated the presence of Th2 cells and Th17 cells in endometriotic tissues and revealed multiple effects of IL-4 and IL-17A, cytokines secreted from respective Th cells. IL-1β induces secretion of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), a regulator for differentiation of inflammatory Th2 cells, in endometriotic stromal cells (ESCs). IL-4 stimulates proliferation of ESCs and production of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase Type 2, an enzyme in an estrogen production pathway, in ESCs. IL-17A stimulates IL-8 and Gro-α secretion from ESCs and proliferation of ESCs. IL-17A-induced Gro-α promotes neutrophil migration, which may contribute to the presence of neutrophils in endometriotic tissues. IL-17A also increases secretion of CCL20, a chemokine for Th17 cells, from ESCs, which seems to induce migration of Th17 cells to the endometriotic tissues and enhance the effects of IL-17A further. TNFα in combination with IL-17A synergistically enhances secretion of IL-8 and CCL-20, suggesting cooperation of inflammation and Th17 immune response. These findings suggest that IL-4 and IL-17A promote the development of endometriosis through induction of cell proliferation, inflammation, and estrogen production. It is thus also suggested that IL-4 and IL-17A would be a target of treatment of the disease.

Cytokine Effects on Mechano-Induced Electrical Activity in Atrial Myocardium

The role of cytokines as regulators of stretch-related mechanisms is of special importance since mechano-sensitivity plays an important role in a wide variety of biological processes. Here, we elucidate the influence of cytokine application on mechano-sensitivity and mechano-transduction. The atrial myocardial stretch induces production of interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-13, IL-17A, and IL-18 with exception of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), IL-1β, and vascular endothelial growth factor B (VEGF-B). Positive ionotropic effect was specific for VEGF-B, negative ionotropic effects were specific for TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-13, IL-17A and IL-18, while IL-1α doesn't show direct ionotropic effect. The IL-2, IL-6, IL-17A, IL-18, and VEGF-B cause elongation of the APD, in comparison with the reduced APD caused by the IL-13. The TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18 influences L-type Ca²⁺ channels, IL-2 has an inhibitory effect on the fast Na⁺ channels while IL-17A and VEGF-B were specific for Kir channels. With exception of the IL-1α, IL-2, and VEGF-B, all analyzed cytokines include nitric oxide dependent signaling with resultant combined effects on mechano-gated and Ca²⁺ channels. The relationships between these pathways and the time-dependence of their activation are of important considerations in the evaluation of cytokine-induced electrical abnormality, specific for cardiac dysfunctions. In general, the discussion presented in this review covers research devoted to counterbalance between different cytokines in the regulation of stretch-induced effects in rat atrial myocardium.

ABBREVIATIONS

APs: action potentials; APD25: action potential durations to 25% of re-polarization; APD50: action potential durations to 50% of repolarization; APD90: action potential durations to 90% of repolarization; MGCs: mechanically gated channels.

Endometriosis: where are we and where are we going?

Endometriosis currently affects ~5.5 million reproductive-aged women in the U.S. with symptoms such as painful periods (dysmenorrhea), chronic pelvic pain, pain with intercourse (dyspareunia), and infertility. It is defined as the presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity and is found predominately attached to sites within the peritoneal cavity. Diagnosis for endometriosis is solely made through surgery as no consistent biomarkers for disease diagnosis exist. There is no cure for endometriosis and treatments only target symptoms and not the underlying mechanism(s) of disease. The nature of individual predisposing factors or inherent defects in the endometrium, immune system, and/or peritoneal cavity of women with endometriosis remains unclear. The literature over the last 5 years (2010-2015) has advanced our critical knowledge related to hormones, hormone receptors, immune dysregulation, hormonal treatments, and the transformation of endometriosis to ovarian cancer. In this review, we cover the aforementioned topics with the goal of providing the reader an overview and related references for further study to highlight the progress made in endometriosis research, while concluding with critical areas of endometriosis research that are urgently needed.

The Seminal Plasma of the Boar is Rich in Cytokines, with Significant Individual and Intra-Ejaculate Variation

PROBLEM

The boar, as human, sequentially ejaculates sperm-rich and sperm-poor fractions. Seminal plasma (SP) spermadhesins (PSP-I/PSP-II) induce a primary endometrial inflammatory response in female sows, similar to that elicited by semen deposition in other species, including human. However, the SP is also known to mitigate such response, making it transient to allow for embryo entry to a cleansed endometrium. Although cytokine involvement has been claimed, the exploration of cytokines in different SP fractions is scarce. This study determines Th1, Th2, Th17 and Th3 cytokine profiles in specific ejaculate SP fractions from boars of proven fertility.

METHODS

SP samples from the sperm-rich fraction (SRF) and the sperm-poor post-SRF fraction (post-SRF) of manually collected ejaculates from eight boars (four ejaculates per boar) were analysed by commercial multiplex bead assay kits (Milliplex MAP, Millipore, USA) for interferon-γ, interferon gamma-induced protein 10, macrophage-derived chemokine, growth-regulated oncogene, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, monocyte chemo-attractant protein-1, interleukins (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-15, IL-17 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1-β3.

RESULTS

Cytokine concentrations differed between the ejaculate fractions among boars, being highest in the post-SRF.

CONCLUSION

Boar SP is rich in Th1, Th2, Th17 and Th3 cytokines, with lowest concentrations in the sperm-peak-containing fraction, indicating its main immune influence might reside in the larger, protein-rich sperm-poor post-SRF.