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Animal models of liability to post-traumatic stress disorder: going beyond fear memory. Behav Pharmacol 2020; 30:122-129. [PMID: 30724805 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we advocate a dimensional approach on the basis of candidate endophenotypes to the development of animal models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) capable of including genetic liability factors, variations in symptoms profile and underlying neurobiological mechanisms, and specific comorbidities. Results from the clinical literature pointed to two candidate endophenotypes of PTSD: low sensory gating and high waiting impulsivity. Findings of comparative studies in mice of two inbred strains characterized by different expressions of the two candidate endophenotypes showed different strain-specific neural and behavioral effects of stress experiences. Thus, mice of the standard C57BL/6J strain show stress-induced helplessness, stress-learned helplessness, and stress-extinction-resistant conditioned freezing. Instead, mice of the genetically unrelated DBA/2J strain, expressing both candidate endophenotypes, show stress-induced extinction-resistant avoidance and neural and behavioral phenotypes promoted by prolonged exposure to addictive drugs. These strain differences are in line with evidence of associations between genetic variants and specific stress-promoted pathological profiles in PTSD, support a role of genotype in determining different PTSD comorbidities, and offer the means to investigate specific pathogenic processes.
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McClure KE, Blakey SM, Kozina RM, Ripley AJ, Kern SM, Clapp JD. Behavioral inhibition and posttrauma symptomatology: Moderating effects of safety behaviors and biological sex. J Clin Psychol 2019; 75:1350-1363. [DOI: 10.1002/jclp.22778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Shannon M. Blakey
- Department of Psychology and NeuroscienceUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill North Carolina
| | - Ryan M. Kozina
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of WyomingLaramie Wyoming
| | - Adam J. Ripley
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of WyomingLaramie Wyoming
| | - Shira M. Kern
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of WyomingLaramie Wyoming
| | - Joshua D. Clapp
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of WyomingLaramie Wyoming
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The Role of the Amygdala and the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex in Emotional Regulation: Implications for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Neuropsychol Rev 2019; 29:220-243. [DOI: 10.1007/s11065-019-09398-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Lin CC, Chang HA, Tai YM, Chen TY, Wan FJ, Chang CC, Tung CS, Liu YP. Subchronic administration of aripiprazole improves fear extinction retrieval of Pavlovian conditioning paradigm in rats experiencing psychological trauma. Behav Brain Res 2019; 362:181-187. [PMID: 30610908 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.12.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
People may suffer from an intruded fear memory when the attributable traumatic events no longer exist. This is of highly clinical relevance to trauma-induced mental disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Mechanism underlying PTSD largely lies in the abnormal process of fear extinction and a functional imbalance within amygdala associated fear circuit areas. Previous evidence suggested central dopamine plays a key role in the regulation of the fear memory process, yet it remains unclear whether the intervention of dopamine modulators would be beneficial for the fear extinction abnormalities. The present study examined the performance of Pavlovian conditioned fear and the changes of dopamine profiles following a subchronic 14-day regimen of aripiprazole (a partial agonist of dopamine D2 receptors to normalize the condition caused by dopamine imbalance) in rats previously experienced a psychologically traumatic procedure of single prolonged stress (SPS). The results demonstrated that aripiprazole at 5.0 mg/kg reversed the SPS-impaired fear memory dysfunction and the SPS-reduced dopamine efflux in the amygdala. The present study suggests a therapeutic potential of subchronic treatment with aripiprazole in managing patients suffered from fear extinction problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Cheng Lin
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Cheng Hsin General Hospital, Taipei, 11220, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-An Chang
- Department of Psychiatry, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan
| | - Yueh-Ming Tai
- Department of Psychiatry, Beitou Branch, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Yen Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Cheng Hsin General Hospital, Taipei, 11220, Taiwan
| | - Fang-Jung Wan
- Department of Psychiatry, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan
| | - Chuan-Chia Chang
- Department of Psychiatry, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan
| | - Che-Se Tung
- Division of Medical Research and Education, Cheng Hsin General Hospital, Taipei, 11220, Taiwan
| | - Yia-Ping Liu
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Cheng Hsin General Hospital, Taipei, 11220, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan; Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Physiology, Department of Physiology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan.
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Caulfield MD, Myers CE. Post-traumatic stress symptoms are associated with better performance on a delayed match-to-position task. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4701. [PMID: 29736339 PMCID: PMC5936632 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Many individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) report experiencing frequent intrusive memories of the original traumatic event (e.g., flashbacks). These memories can be triggered by situations or stimuli that reflect aspects of the trauma and may reflect basic processes in learning and memory, such as generalization. It is possible that, through increased generalization, non-threatening stimuli that once evoked normal memories become associated with traumatic memories. Previous research has reported increased generalization in PTSD, but the role of visual discrimination processes has not been examined. To investigate visual discrimination in PTSD, 143 participants (Veterans and civilians) self-assessed for symptom severity were grouped according to the presence of severe PTSD symptoms (PTSS) vs. few/no symptoms (noPTSS). Participants were given a visual match-to-sample pattern separation task that varied trials by spatial separation (Low, Medium, High) and temporal delays (5, 10, 20, 30 s). Unexpectedly, the PTSS group demonstrated better discrimination performance than the noPTSS group at the most difficult spatial trials (Low spatial separation). Further assessment of accuracy and reaction time using diffusion drift modeling indicated that the better performance by the PTSS group on the hardest trials was not explained by slower reaction times, but rather a faster accumulation of evidence during decision making in conjunction with a reduced threshold, indicating a tendency in the PTSS group to decide quickly rather than waiting for additional evidence to support the decision. This result supports the need for future studies examining the precise role of discrimination and generalization in PTSD, and how these cognitive processes might contribute to expression and maintenance of PTSD symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan D Caulfield
- Department of Psychology, Lafayette College, Easton, PA, United States of America.,Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory, VA New Jersey Health Care System, East Orange, NJ, United States of America
| | - Catherine E Myers
- Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory, VA New Jersey Health Care System, East Orange, NJ, United States of America.,Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers University-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States of America
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Park D, Lee HJ, Lee SH. Generalization of Conscious Fear Is Positively Correlated with Anxiety, but Not with Depression. Exp Neurobiol 2018. [PMID: 29535568 PMCID: PMC5840460 DOI: 10.5607/en.2018.27.1.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Generalization of learned fear has been considered to be critical for our survival. Patients with anxiety problems show overgeneralization of learned fear, as reflected by defensive physiological responses to harmless stimuli. Together with these physiological responses, conscious feeling of fear is a seminal part of emotional process that is directly related to the suffering of anxiety patients. However, the effect of anxiety on the generalization of conscious feeling remains unclear. We thus focused on the question whether the generalization of conscious feeling of fear depends on individual anxiety level in nonpatient participants. To address this question, we developed a fear generalization paradigm using natural scene images. We found that subjective feeling of fear was generalized to similar stimuli with the conditioned stimuli (CS), and that this generalization of conscious fear was positively correlated with the level of individual anxiety. Anxiety and depression frequently co-occur, but the individual depression level was not correlated with the fear generalization. These suggest that individual anxiety level mainly affects the generalization of conscious fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doyoung Park
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Hwa-Jin Lee
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Sue-Hyun Lee
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea.,Program of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
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Stern CA, da Silva TR, Raymundi AM, de Souza CP, Hiroaki-Sato VA, Kato L, Guimarães FS, Andreatini R, Takahashi RN, Bertoglio LJ. Cannabidiol disrupts the consolidation of specific and generalized fear memories via dorsal hippocampus CB 1 and CB 2 receptors. Neuropharmacology 2017; 125:220-230. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Effect of Threat on Right dlPFC Activity during Behavioral Pattern Separation. J Neurosci 2017; 37:9160-9171. [PMID: 28842415 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0717-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
It has long been established that individuals with anxiety disorders tend to overgeneralize attributes of fearful stimuli to nonfearful stimuli, but there is little mechanistic understanding of the neural system that supports overgeneralization. To address this gap in our knowledge, this study examined effect of experimentally induced anxiety in humans on generalization using the behavioral pattern separation (BPS) paradigm. Healthy subjects of both sexes encoded and retrieved novel objects during periods of safety and threat of unpredictable shocks while we recorded brain activity with fMRI. During retrieval, subjects were instructed to differentiate among new, old, and altered images. We hypothesized that the hippocampus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) would play a key role in the effect of anxiety on BPS. The dlPFC, but not the hippocampus, showed increased activity for altered images compared with old images when retrieval occurred during periods of threat compared with safety. In addition, accuracy for altered items retrieved during threat was correlated with dlPFC activity. Together, these results suggest that overgeneralization in anxiety patients may be mediated by an inability to recruit the dlPFC, which mediates the cognitive control needed to overcome anxiety and differentiate between old and altered items during periods of threat.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder patients generalize fear to nonfearful fear stimuli, making it difficult to regulate anxiety. Understanding how anxiety affects generalization is key to understanding the overgeneralization experienced by these patients. We examined this relationship in healthy subjects by studying how threat of shock affects neural responses to previously encountered stimuli. Although previous studies point to hippocampal involvement, we found that threat affected activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), rather than the hippocampus, when subjects encountered slightly altered versions of the previously encountered items. Importantly, this dlPFC activity predicted performance for these items. Together, these results suggest that the dlPFC is important for discrimination during elevated anxiety and that overgeneralization may reflect a deficit in dlPFC-mediated cognitive control.
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Kalsi N, Altavilla D, Tambelli R, Aceto P, Trentini C, Di Giorgio C, Lai C. Neural Correlates of Outcome of the Psychotherapy Compared to Antidepressant Therapy in Anxiety and Depression Disorders: A Meta-Analysis. Front Psychol 2017. [PMID: 28638359 PMCID: PMC5461356 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The most prevalent mental disorders, anxiety and depression, are commonly associated with structural and functional changes in the fronto-limbic brain areas. The clinical trials investigating patients with affective disorders showed different outcome to different treatments such as psychotherapy or pharmacotherapy. It is, however, still unexplored how these interventions approach affect the functional brain. This meta-analysis aims to compare the effects of psychotherapy compared to antidepressant therapy on functional brain activity in anxiety and depression disorders. Twenty-one samples with psychotherapy and seventeen samples with antidepressant therapy were included. The main finding showed an inverse effect of the two treatments on the right paracingulate activity. The patients undergoing psychotherapy showed an increase in the right paracingulate activity while pharmacological treatment led to a decrease of activation of this area. This finding seems to support the recent studies that hypothesize how psychotherapy, through the self-knowledge and the meaning processing, involves a top-down emotional regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navkiran Kalsi
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of RomeRome, Italy
| | - Daniela Altavilla
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of RomeRome, Italy
| | - Renata Tambelli
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of RomeRome, Italy
| | - Paola Aceto
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Università Cattolica del Sacro CuoreRome, Italy
| | - Cristina Trentini
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of RomeRome, Italy
| | - Chiara Di Giorgio
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of RomeRome, Italy
| | - Carlo Lai
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of RomeRome, Italy
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Sheynin J, Shind C, Radell M, Ebanks-Williams Y, Gilbertson MW, Beck KD, Myers CE. Greater avoidance behavior in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Stress 2017; 20:285-293. [PMID: 28322068 PMCID: PMC5490437 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2017.1309523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
While avoidance is a core symptom of PTSD, little is known about whether individuals with PTSD show a general cognitive bias to acquire and express avoidance, in situations not related to trauma or fear. Here, we used a computer-based task to examine operant acquisition and extinction of avoidance in participants with and without severe self-reported PTSD symptoms. A total of 119 participants (77 male, 42 female; 74 veteran, 45 civilian) with symptoms (PTSS; n = 63) or with few/no symptoms (noPTSS; n = 56) performed a task, in which they controlled a spaceship and could shoot a target to gain points or hide in "safe areas" to escape or avoid on-screen aversive events. Results show that participants with PTSS exhibited more avoidance across trials than noPTSS participants, particularly due to more avoidance behavior in PTSS females compared to noPTSS females. Avoidance behavior decreased across extinction trials but interactions with PTSS and gender fell short of significance. Overall, PTSD symptoms were associated with propensity to acquire and express avoidance behavior, in both civilians and veterans, and even in a cognitive task that does not explicitly involve trauma or fear. This effect was more pronounced in females, highlighting the role of gender differences in PTSD symptomatology. Importantly, this study also demonstrates the potential of an objective assessment of avoidance behavior, which could be used to supplement the common but limited self-report tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jony Sheynin
- Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Christine Shind
- Department of Veterans Affairs, New Jersey Health Care System, East Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Milen Radell
- Department of Veterans Affairs, New Jersey Health Care System, East Orange, NJ, USA
| | | | | | - Kevin D. Beck
- Department of Veterans Affairs, New Jersey Health Care System, East Orange, NJ, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Catherine E. Myers
- Department of Veterans Affairs, New Jersey Health Care System, East Orange, NJ, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
- Corresponding Author: Catherine E. Myers, Research Services, VA New Jersey Health Care System, 385 Tremont Avenue, East Orange, NJ 07018, , Phone: 973-676-1000 x(1)1810
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Post-traumatic stress disorder symptom burden and gender each affect generalization in a reward- and punishment-learning task. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172144. [PMID: 28196108 PMCID: PMC5308829 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop following exposure to a traumatic event. Re-experiencing, which includes intrusive memories or flashbacks of the trauma, is a core symptom cluster of PTSD. From an associative learning perspective, this cluster may be attributed to cues associated with the trauma, which have come to elicit symptoms in a variety of situations encountered in daily life due to a tendency to overgeneralize. Consistent with this, prior studies have indicated that both individuals with clinically diagnosed with PTSD, and those with self-reported symptoms who may not meet full diagnostic criteria, show changes in generalization. Building on prior research, the current study examined whether PTSD symptom burden, but also gender, veteran status, and combat experience–all associated with PTSD vulnerability–modulate learning and generalization in a computer-based task. Participants were presented with stimulus compounds consisting of a foreground and background that could be predictive of reward, punishment or no outcome. Learning was followed by a generalization test where these components were recombined to form novel configurations. An interaction between PTSD symptom burden and gender was found where females with more severe PTSD symptoms showed no evidence of sensitivity to the background. This result is consistent with increased generalization, and may indicate a decrease in the ability to process cue configurations leading to re-experiencing in a variety of situations. Further work is indicated to help elucidate the cognitive processes driving gender differences that may confer vulnerability to PTSD.
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Lin CC, Tung CS, Liu YP. Escitalopram reversed the traumatic stress-induced depressed and anxiety-like symptoms but not the deficits of fear memory. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:1135-46. [PMID: 26740318 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4194-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a trauma-induced mental disorder characterised by fear extinction dysfunction in which fear circuit monoamines are possibly associated. PTSD often coexists with depressive/anxiety symptoms, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are recommended to treat PTSD. However, therapeutic mechanisms of SSRIs underlying the PTSD fear symptoms remain unclear. OBJECTIVES Using a rodent PTSD model, we examined the effects of early SSRI intervention in mood and fear dysfunctions with associated changes of monoamines within the fear circuit areas. METHODS A 14-day escitalopram (ESC) regimen (5 mg/kg/day) was undertaken in two separate experiments in rats which previously received a protocol of single prolonged stress (SPS). In experiment 1, sucrose preference and elevated T-maze were used to index anhedonia depression and avoidance/escape anxiety profiles. In experiment 2, the percentage of freezing time was measured in a 3-day fear conditioning paradigm. At the end of our study, tissue levels of serotonin (5-HT) in the medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and striatum were measured in experiment 1, and the efflux levels of infralimbic (IL) monoamines were measured in experiment 2. RESULTS In experiment 1, ESC corrected both behavioural (depression/anxiety) and neurochemical (reduced 5-HT tissue levels in amygdala/hippocampus) abnormalities. In experiment 2, ESC was unable to correct the SPS-impaired retrieval of fear extinction. In IL, ESC increased the efflux level of 5-HT but failed to reverse SPS-reduced dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NA). CONCLUSIONS PTSD-induced mood dysfunction is psychopathologically different from PTSD-induced fear disruption in terms of disequilibrium of monoamines within the fear circuit areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Cheng Lin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan
| | - Che-Se Tung
- Division of Medical Research and Education, Cheng Hsin General Hospital, Taipei, 11220, Taiwan
| | - Yia-Ping Liu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan.
- Department of Psychiatry, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, 11490, Taiwan.
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Moustafa AA, Phillips J, Kéri S, Misiak B, Frydecka D. On the Complexity of Brain Disorders: A Symptom-Based Approach. Front Comput Neurosci 2016; 10:16. [PMID: 26941635 PMCID: PMC4763073 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2016.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence shows that brain disorders involve multiple and different neural dysfunctions, including regional brain damage, change to cell structure, chemical imbalance, and/or connectivity loss among different brain regions. Understanding the complexity of brain disorders can help us map these neural dysfunctions to different symptom clusters as well as understand subcategories of different brain disorders. Here, we discuss data on the mapping of symptom clusters to different neural dysfunctions using examples from brain disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), schizophrenia, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In addition, we discuss data on the similarities of symptoms in different disorders. Importantly, computational modeling work may be able to shed light on plausible links between various symptoms and neural damage in brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Moustafa
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney UniversitySydney, NSW, Australia; Marcs Institute for Brain and Behavior, Western Sydney UniversitySydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Joseph Phillips
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Szabolcs Kéri
- Nyírö Gyula Hospital, National Institute of Psychiatry and Addictions Budapest, Hungary
| | - Blazej Misiak
- Department and Clinic of Psychiatry, Wroclaw Medical UniversityWroclaw, Poland; Department of Genetics, Wroclaw Medical UniversityWroclaw, Poland
| | - Dorota Frydecka
- Department and Clinic of Psychiatry, Wroclaw Medical University Wroclaw, Poland
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