Ameliorative effect of methanol extract of Rubia cordifolia in N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma

A comprehensive review of Rubia cordifolia L.: Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and clinical applications

Rubia cordifolia (family: Rubiaceae) L (R. cordifolia) is a perennial botanical drug climbing vine. As the main part of the traditional Chinese medicine, the rhizome has a long history. A great number of literary studies have reported that it can be used for the improvement of blood circulation, hemostasis, activation of collaterals, etc. When it comes to the wide application of R. cordifolia in traditional medicine, we systematically review its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological effects. Literatures were systematically searched using several scientific databases, including China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Baidu Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and other professional websites. Kew Botanical Garden and the iPlant were used for obtaining the scientific names and plant images of R. cordifolia. In addition, other information was also gathered from books including traditional Chinese herbal medicine, the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, and Chinese Materia Medica. So far, many prescriptions containing R. cordifolia have been widely used in the clinical treatment of abnormal uterine bleeding, primary dysmenorrhea and other gynecological diseases, allergic purpura, renal hemorrhage and other diseases. The phytochemistry studies have reported that more than 100 compounds are found in R. cordifolia, such as bicyclic peptides, terpenes, polysaccharides, trace elements, flavonoids, and quinones. Among them, quinones and peptides are the types of components with the highest contents in R. cordifolia. The modern pharmacological studies have revealed that R. cordifolia and its derived components have anti-tumor, anti-oxidative, anti-platelet aggregation, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, most studies are preclinical. The pharmacological mechanism of R. cordifolia has not been thoroughly studied. In addition, there are few pharmacokinetic and toxicity studies of R. cordifolia, therefore the clinical safety data for R. cordifolia is lacking. To sum up, this review for the first time summarizes a systemic and integrated traditional uses, chemical compositions, pharmacological actions and clinical applications of R. cordifolia, which provides the novel and full-scale insight for the drug development, medicinal value, and application of R. cordifolia in the future.

ZnO Nanoparticles of Rubia cordifolia Extract Formulation Developed and Optimized with QbD Application, Considering Ex Vivo Skin Permeation, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties

The objective of the current research is to develop ZnO-Manjistha extract (ZnO-MJE) nanoparticles (NPs) and to investigate their transdermal delivery as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. The optimized formulation was further evaluated based on different parameters. The ZnO-MJE-NPs were prepared by mixing 10 mM ZnSO₄·7H₂O and 0.8% w/v NaOH in distilled water. To the above, a solution of 10 mL MJE (10 mg) in 50 mL of zinc sulfate was added. Box-Behnken design (Design-Expert software 12.0.1.0) was used for the optimization of ZnO-MJE-NP formulations. The ZnO-MJE-NPs were evaluated for their physicochemical characterization, in vitro release activity, ex vivo permeation across rat skin, antimicrobial activity using sterilized agar media, and antioxidant activity by the DPPH free radical method. The optimized ZnO-MJE-NP formulation (F13) showed a particle size of 257.1 ± 0.76 nm, PDI value of 0.289 ± 0.003, and entrapment efficiency of 79 ± 0.33%. Drug release kinetic models showed that the formulation followed the Korsmeyer-Peppas model with a drug release of 34.50 ± 2.56 at pH 7.4 in 24 h. In ex vivo studies ZnO-MJE-NPs-opt permeation was 63.26%. The antibacterial activity was found to be enhanced in ZnO-MJE-NPs-opt and antioxidant activity was found to be highest (93.14 ± 4.05%) at 100 µg/mL concentrations. The ZnO-MJE-NPs-opt formulation showed prolonged release of the MJE and intensified permeation. Moreover, the formulation was found to show significantly (p < 0.05) better antimicrobial and antioxidant activity as compared to conventional suspension formulations.

Antihyperglycemic effect and phytochemical investigation of Rubia cordifolia (Indian Madder) leaves extract

Medicinal plants are used as an important source of medicines in pharmaceutical industry. Rubia cordifolia is widely used to cure diabetes mellitus. Present study was aimed to investigate the antihyperglycemic effects of different fractions of R. cordifolia leaves and to analyze its antioxidant effect and phytochemical composition. Male albino mice were randomly distributed into seven groups (n = 7). Group-I was normal control, group-II was Alloxan (100 mg/kg)-induced diabetic control, and group-III was standard drug (Glibenclamide 0.5 mg/kg)-treated group. Animals in groups IV–VII were treated with n-hexane fraction, ethyl acetate fraction, n-butanol fraction and aqueous fraction of R. cordifolia, orally administered (100 mg/kg) once daily up to 28 days after Alloxan induction, respectively. Methanolic extract (ME) and fractions of R. cordifilia were analyzed for antioxidant activity and quantification of total phenolic content and total flavonoid content. HPLC of ME and most active fractions were performed. The results showed that RCEF (G-V) and RCBF (G-VI) have significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the increased level of glucose as compared to toxicant control group. It was further revealed that EF and BF have higher antioxidant activity (having IC50 34.9, 36.86 (µg/mL)) owing to phenolic and flavonoid identified by HPLC.

Antioxidant and Polyphenol-Rich Ethanolic Extract of Rubia tinctorum L. Prevents Urolithiasis in an Ethylene Glycol Experimental Model in Rats

Treatment of kidney stones is based on symptomatic medications which are associated with side effects such as gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., nausea, vomiting) and hepatotoxicity. The search for effective plant extracts without the above side effects has demonstrated the involvement of antioxidants in the treatment of kidney stones. A local survey in Morocco has previously revealed the frequent use of Rubia tinctorum L. (RT) for the treatment of kidney stones. In this study, we first explored whether RT ethanolic (E-RT) and ethyl acetate (EA-RT) extracts of Rubia tinctorum L. could prevent the occurrence of urolithiasis in an experimental 0.75% ethylene glycol (EG) and 2% ammonium chloride (AC)-induced rat model. Secondly, we determined the potential antioxidant potency as well as the polyphenol composition of these extracts. An EG/AC regimen for 10 days induced the formation of bipyramid-shaped calcium oxalate crystals in the urine. Concomitantly, serum and urinary creatinine, urea, uric acid, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potassium, and chloride were altered. The co-administration of both RT extracts prevented alterations in all these parameters. In the EG/AC-induced rat model, the antioxidants- and polyphenols-rich E-RT and EA-RT extracts significantly reduced the presence of calcium oxalate in the urine, and prevented serum and urinary biochemical alterations together with kidney tissue damage associated with urolithiasis. Moreover, we demonstrated that the beneficial preventive effects of E-RT co-administration were more pronounced than those obtained with EA-RT. The superiority of E-RT was associated with its more potent antioxidant effect, due to its high content in polyphenols.

Crosstalk of Cancer Signaling Pathways by Cyclic Hexapeptides and Anthraquinones from Rubia cordifolia

The anticancer activities of Rubia cordifolia and its constituents have been reported earlier, but their influence on the crosstalk of complex cancer-related signaling metabolic pathways (i.e., transcription factors; TF) has not yet been fully investigated. In this study, R. cordifolia root extract was subjected to the cancer signaling assay based bioactivity-guided fractionation, which yielded the following compounds viz., three anthraquinones, namely alizarin (1), purpurin (2), and emodin (3); two lignans, namely eudesmin (4) and compound 5; and two cyclic hexapeptides, namely deoxybouvardin RA-V (6), and a mixture of 6+9 (RA-XXI). The structures of the isolated compounds were determined by NMR spectroscopy and HRESIMS. The isolated compounds 1, 2, 3, 6, and a mixture of 6+9 were tested against a panel of luciferase reporter genes that assesses the activity of a wide-range of cancer-related signaling pathways. In addition, reference anthraquinones viz., chrysophanol (11), danthron (12), quinizarin (13), aloe-emodin (14), and α-lapachone (15) were also tested. Among the tested compounds, the cyclic hexapeptide 6 was found to be very active against several signaling pathways, notably Wnt, Myc, and Notch with IC₅₀ values of 50, 75, and 93 ng/mL, respectively. Whereas, the anthraquinones exhibited very mild or no inhibition against these signaling pathways. Compound 6 being the most active, we tested it for stability in simulated intestinal (SIF) and gastric fluids (SGF), since the stability in biological fluid is a key short-coming of cyclic hexapeptides. The anticancer activity of 6 was found to remain unchanged before and after the treatment of simulated gastric/intestinal fluids, indicating that RA-V was stable. As a result, it could be bioavailable when orally used in therapeutics and possibly a drug candidate for cancer treatment. The mechanism for the preferential inhibition of these pathways and the possible crosstalk effect with other previously reported signaling pathways has been discussed.

Modulatory Effects of Triphala and Manjistha Dietary Supplementation on Human Gut Microbiota: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study

Objectives: Triphala (which contains Emblica officinalis, Terminalia bellerica, and Terminalia chebula) and manjistha (Rubia cordifolia), have received increased clinical attention. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of triphala, manjistha, or placebo dietary supplementation on gut microbiota as such studies in humans are lacking. Design: This was a 4-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial. Setting: This trial was conducted at the University of California Davis, Department of Dermatology. Subjects: A total of 31 healthy human subjects were randomized to 3 groups. Interventions: The 3 groups were instructed to take 2,000 mg of either triphala, manjistha or placebo daily for 4 weeks. Outcome Measures: The impact of treatment on gut microbiota composition was evaluated following a 4-week dietary intervention by profiling fecal communities with 16S rRNA profiling in triphala (n = 9), manjistha (n = 9), or placebo (n = 11) treated subjects that completed the intervention. Results: An average of 336 phylotypes were detected in each sample (range: 161 to 648). The analysis of gut microbiota in placebo control and herb-supplemented participants indicated that responses were highly personalized, and no taxa were uniformly altered by the medicinal herb supplementation protocol. Subjects in both treatment groups displayed a trend toward decreased Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio and increased relative abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila. Both medicinal herb treatments reduced the relative abundance of Rikenellaceae, primarily reflecting changes in Alistipes spp. Conclusions: Dietary supplementation with medicinal herbs altered fecal microbial communities. Despite the lack of a clear response signature, a group of bacterial taxa were identified that were more commonly altered in herb-supplemented participants compared to placebo controls. Clinicaltrials.gov identifier NCT03477825.

TMARg, a Novel Anthraquinone Isolated from Rubia cordifolia Nakai, Increases Osteogenesis and Mineralization through BMP2 and β-Catenin Signaling

Background: Plant extracts have long been regarded as useful medicines in the treatment of human diseases. Rubia cordifolia Nakai has been used as a traditional medicine, as it has pharmacological properties such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. However, the biological functions of TMARg, isolated from the roots of R. cordifolia, in osteoblast differentiation remain unknown. This study was performed to investigate the pharmacological effects and intracellular signaling of TMARg in the osteoblast differentiation of pre-osteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells and mesenchymal precursor C2C12 cells. Methods: Cell viability was evaluated using an MTT assay. Early and late osteoblast differentiation was examined by analyzing the activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and by staining it with Alizarin red S (ARS). Cell migration was determined by using migration assays. Western blot analysis and immunocytochemical analysis were used to examine the intracellular signaling pathways and differentiation proteins. Results: In the present study, TMARg showed no cytotoxicity and increased the osteoblast differentiation in pre-osteoblasts, as assessed from the alkaline phosphate (ALP) staining and activity and ARS staining. TMARg also induced BMP2 expression and increased the p-smad1/5/8-RUNX2 and β-catenin pathways in both MC3T3-E1 and C2C12 cells. Furthermore, TMARg activated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and increased the cell migration rate. In addition, the TMARg-mediated osteoblast differentiation was suppressed by BMP and Wnt inhibitors with the downregulation of BMP2 expression. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that TMARg exerts pharmacological and biological effects on osteoblast differentiation through the activation of BMP2 and β-catenin signaling pathways, and suggest that TMARg might be a potential phytomedicine for the treatment of bone diseases.

FFJ-3 inhibits PKM2 protein expression via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and activates the mitochondrial apoptosis signaling pathway in human cancer cells

Pyruvate kinase isoenzyme M2 (PKM2) has previously been identified as a tumor biomarker and potential therapeutic target for the treatment of cancer. In the present study, FFJ-3, a structurally modified version of mollugin, an extract of the Traditional Chinese herbal medicine Rubia tinctorum (madder) was used in order to determine the anticancer activity of the compound and investigate the potential mechanisms underlying this effect in human cancer cells. The results of the present study revealed that FFJ-3 inhibited the survival of HepG2 human hepatoma cells, MCF-7 human breast cancer cells and A549 human lung adenocarcinoma cells using the MTT assay. In addition, FFJ-3 arrested cell cycle progression at G₂/M and G₁ in HepG2 and A549 cells, respectively. Further analyses demonstrated that FFJ-3 attenuated the expression of PKM2 protein via the inhibition of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt serine/threonine kinase (Akt) signaling pathway. Furthermore, treatment of all three cell types with FFJ-3 significantly increased apoptosis and decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential compared with the untreated control group. In addition, FFJ-3 treatment increased the ratio of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2)/Bcl-2 associated X and activated the caspase-3 cascade. In conclusion, the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and activation of the caspase-3 cascade by FFJ-3 were primarily responsible for the inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis in MCF-7, HepG2 and A549 cells. The results of the present study suggest a potential therapeutic role for FFJ-3 in the treatment of human cancer.

A Review of the Botany, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Toxicology of Rubiae Radix et Rhizoma

Rubia cordifolia Linn (Rubiaceae) is a climbing perennial herbal plant, which is widely distributed in China and India. Its root and rhizome, Rubiae Radix et Rhizoma (called Qiancao in China and Indian madder in India), is a well known phytomedicine used for hematemesis, epistaxis, flooding, spotting, traumatic bleeding, amenorrhea caused by obstruction, joint impediment pain, swelling and pain caused by injuries from falls. In addition, it is a kind of pigment utilized as a food additive and a dye for wool or fiber. This review mainly concentrates on studies of the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of this Traditional Chinese Medicine. The phytochemical evidences indicated that over a hundred chemical components have been found and isolated from the medicine, such as anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, triterpenoids, cyclic hexapeptides and others. These components are considered responsible for the various bioactivities of the herbal drug, including anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, immunomodulation, antitumor, effects on coagulation-fibrinolysis system, neuroprotection and other effects. Additionally, based on these existing results, we also propose some interesting future research directions. Consequently, this review should help us to more comprehensively understand and to more fully utilize the herbal medicine Rubiae Radix et Rhizoma.

Induction of apoptosis by FFJ-5, a novel naphthoquinone compound, occurs via downregulation of PKM2 in A549 and HepG2 cells

Pyruvate kinase isoenzyme M2 (PKM2) has previously been identified as a tumor biomarker and as a potential target for cancer therapy. In this study, F§FJ-5, a characterized naphthoquinone modifier of mollugin, was synthesized in order to investigate its anticancer activity and the potential mechanisms. It was observed that FFJ-5 inhibited the cell growth of human lung adenocarcinoma cells A549 and human hepatoma cells HepG2 by MTT assays. FFJ-5 arrested cell cycle at the G2/M phase. Further analyses demonstrated that FFJ-5 attenuated the expression of PKM2 and reduced the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Reduced expression and activity of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Akt were observed in A549 and HepG2 cells exposed to FFJ-5. FFJ-5 exposure also resulted in cell apoptosis, in association with decreased intracellular pH level and mitochondrial membrane potential. In addition, FFJ-5 activated the caspase-3 cascade. In conclusion, FFJ-5 inhibited cancer cell growth via the blocking the EGFR-Akt-PKM2 pathway or through the synergistic action of EGFR, Akt and PKM2 proteins, alongside a decrease in ATP production. In addition, FFJ-5 induced cancer cell apoptosis by decreasing the intracellular pH level and the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The present results suggest a potential role of FFJ-5 on the therapy of human cancer.