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Shao G, Beronius A, Nymark P. SciRAPnano: a pragmatic and harmonized approach for quality evaluation of in vitro toxicity data to support risk assessment of nanomaterials. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2023; 5:1319985. [PMID: 38046400 PMCID: PMC10691260 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2023.1319985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Large amounts of nanotoxicity data from alternative non-animal (in vitro) test methods have been generated, but there is a lack of harmonized quality evaluation approaches for these types of data. Tools for scientifically sound and structured evaluation of the reliability and relevance of in vitro toxicity data to effectively inform regulatory hazard assessment of nanomaterials (NMs), are needed. Here, we present the development of a pragmatic approach to facilitate such evaluation. The tool was developed based on the Science in Risk Assessment and Policy (SciRAP) tool currently applicable to quality evaluation of chemical toxicity studies. The approach taken to develop the tool, referred to as SciRAPnano, included refinement of the original SciRAP in vitro tool through implementation of identified NM-relevant criteria, and further refined based on a set of case studies involving evaluation of 11 studies investigating in vitro toxicity of nano-sized titanium dioxide. Parameters considered cover key physicochemical properties as well as assay-specific aspects that impact NM toxicity, including NM interference with test methods and NM transformation. The final SciRAPnano tool contains 38 criteria for reporting quality, 19 criteria for methodological quality, and 4 guidance items to evaluate relevance. The approach covers essential parameters for pragmatic and harmonized evaluation of NM in vitro toxicity studies and allows for structured use of in vitro data in regulatory hazard assessment of NMs, including transparency on data quality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Penny Nymark
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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2
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Li Y, Cummins E. A semi-quantitative risk ranking of potential human exposure to engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in Europe. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 778:146232. [PMID: 33714827 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Large quantities of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) have emerged on the European market with the rapid development of nanotechnology, however knowledge of potential health risks to humans remains in its infancy. The ENP safety issue is of pressing concern as their novel physicochemical characteristics have been illustrated compared to other bulk-form counterparts. Therefore, it is critical to carry out a comprehensive risk assessment for ENPs to guide risk management in industrial sectors. Based on current data availability, a risk ranking model is developed in accordance with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) advice for ENP risk assessment. In this study a Quantity, Exposure, Hazard (QEH) risk scoring model was adopted for characterizing both quantitative and qualitative data, including potential exposure pathways and hazard information. Scores were assigned to quantities of ENPs used in consumer products, intake likelihoods (oral, inhalation, and dermal intake), and hazard potential. Exposure through environmental routes and through consumer products are regarded as significant potential exposure routes. This model prioritized ENPs used in Europe according to human health risk potential. Nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2) ranked the highest, resulting from exposure through consumer products. Silver nanoparticles (AgNP), as the second most critical ENP, is of most concern in terms of the risk from environmental sinks. Regarding the compartmentalization of total ENP risks to humans, the consumption of consumer products with nano-ingredients, especially nano-TiO2, nano-silicon dioxide (SiO2), and AgNP, constitutes the majority of the QEH risk index. The inadequacy of ENP risk management procedures is highlighted, not only during manufacturing, but also during nanomaterial waste disposal processes from marketplace through to the environment. Current risk assessments are based upon recent knowledge of the ENP class as novel pollutants, highlighting the need for further quantification of underlying risks as data emerges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingzhu Li
- School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, Agriculture & Food Science Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Enda Cummins
- School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, Agriculture & Food Science Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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3
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Workplace Biological Risk Assessment: Review of Existing and Description of a Comprehensive Approach. ATMOSPHERE 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos11070741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Biological risks potentially affect workers in multiple occupational sectors through their exposure to pathogenic agents. These risks must be carefully assessed to prevent adverse health effects. This article identifies and critically analyzes approaches that manage the qualitative evaluation of biological risk (EvBR) as part of occupational health and safety prevention, for which no standard method yet exists. Bibliographic and computing references were searched to identify qualitative EvBR approaches, which were then analyzed based on defined criteria, such as the risks studied and the type of assessment. Approaches proposing the most representative types of assessment were analyzed. EvBR approaches in an occupational setting were identified in 32 sources. “Workstation analysis” combined with “assessment by risk level” were the most common approaches. The predominant risk descriptors (RDs) were defined in a characterized and quantifiable way, and a variety of hazard levels and exposure indices were created. Overall, the risk was determined by summing or multiplying the hazard level and exposure indicators. The results confirmed that no methodological consensus currently exists regarding the EvBR and no approach has yet been described that integrates all the parameters to allow for a full assessment of biological risk. Based on the detailed analysis of the existing data, the present paper proposes a general approach.
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Koivisto AJ, Kling KI, Hänninen O, Jayjock M, Löndahl J, Wierzbicka A, Fonseca AS, Uhrbrand K, Boor BE, Jiménez AS, Hämeri K, Maso MD, Arnold SF, Jensen KA, Viana M, Morawska L, Hussein T. Source specific exposure and risk assessment for indoor aerosols. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 668:13-24. [PMID: 30851679 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Poor air quality is a leading contributor to the global disease burden and total number of deaths worldwide. Humans spend most of their time in built environments where the majority of the inhalation exposure occurs. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is challenged by outdoor air pollution entering indoors through ventilation and infiltration and by indoor emission sources. The aim of this study was to understand the current knowledge level and gaps regarding effective approaches to improve IAQ. Emission regulations currently focus on outdoor emissions, whereas quantitative understanding of emissions from indoor sources is generally lacking. Therefore, specific indoor sources need to be identified, characterized, and quantified according to their environmental and human health impact. The emission sources should be stored in terms of relevant metrics and statistics in an easily accessible format that is applicable for source specific exposure assessment by using mathematical mass balance modelings. This forms a foundation for comprehensive risk assessment and efficient interventions. For such a general exposure assessment model we need 1) systematic methods for indoor aerosol emission source assessment, 2) source emission documentation in terms of relevant a) aerosol metrics and b) biological metrics, 3) default model parameterization for predictive exposure modeling, 4) other needs related to aerosol characterization techniques and modeling methods. Such a general exposure assessment model can be applicable for private, public, and occupational indoor exposure assessment, making it a valuable tool for public health professionals, product safety designers, industrial hygienists, building scientists, and environmental consultants working in the field of IAQ and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti Joonas Koivisto
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark.
| | - Kirsten Inga Kling
- National Centre for Nano Fabrication and Characterization, Technical University of Denmark, Fysikvej 307, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Otto Hänninen
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Kuopio, Finland
| | | | - Jakob Löndahl
- Division of Ergonomics and Aerosol Technology, Department of Design Sciences, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Aneta Wierzbicka
- Division of Ergonomics and Aerosol Technology, Department of Design Sciences, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Ana Sofia Fonseca
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Katrine Uhrbrand
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Brandon E Boor
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States; Ray W. Herrick Laboratories, Center for High Performance Buildings, Purdue University, 177 South Russell Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States
| | - Araceli Sánchez Jiménez
- Centre for Human Exposure Science (CHES), Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Research Avenue North, Riccarton, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
| | - Kaarle Hämeri
- University of Helsinki, Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), PL 64, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Miikka Dal Maso
- Aerosol Physics, Faculty of Natural Science, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland
| | - Susan F Arnold
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Keld A Jensen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Mar Viana
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona 18, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lidia Morawska
- International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Tareq Hussein
- University of Helsinki, Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), PL 64, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland; The University of Jordan, Department of Physics, Amman 11942, Jordan
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5
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Risk Governance of Nanomaterials: Review of Criteria and Tools for Risk Communication, Evaluation, and Mitigation. NANOMATERIALS 2019; 9:nano9050696. [PMID: 31060250 PMCID: PMC6566360 DOI: 10.3390/nano9050696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Nanotechnologies have been increasingly used in industrial applications and consumer products across several sectors, including construction, transportation, energy, and healthcare. The widespread application of these technologies has raised concerns regarding their environmental, health, societal, and economic impacts. This has led to the investment of enormous resources in Europe and beyond into the development of tools to facilitate the risk assessment and management of nanomaterials, and to inform more robust risk governance process. In this context, several risk governance frameworks have been developed. In our study, we present and review those, and identify a set of criteria and tools for risk evaluation, mitigation, and communication, the implementation of which can inform better risk management decision-making by various stakeholders from e.g., industry, regulators, and the civil society. Based on our analysis, we recommend specific methods from decision science and information technologies that can improve the existing risk governance tools so that they can communicate, evaluate, and mitigate risks more transparently, taking stakeholder perspectives and expert opinion into account, and considering all relevant criteria in establishing the risk-benefit balance of these emerging technologies to enable more robust decisions about the governance of their risks.
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6
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Stone V, Führ M, Feindt PH, Bouwmeester H, Linkov I, Sabella S, Murphy F, Bizer K, Tran L, Ågerstrand M, Fito C, Andersen T, Anderson D, Bergamaschi E, Cherrie JW, Cowan S, Dalemcourt JF, Faure M, Gabbert S, Gajewicz A, Fernandes TF, Hristozov D, Johnston HJ, Lansdown TC, Linder S, Marvin HJP, Mullins M, Purnhagen K, Puzyn T, Sanchez Jimenez A, Scott-Fordsmand JJ, Streftaris G, van Tongeren M, Voelcker NH, Voyiatzis G, Yannopoulos SN, Poortvliet PM. The Essential Elements of a Risk Governance Framework for Current and Future Nanotechnologies. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2018; 38:1321-1331. [PMID: 29240986 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Societies worldwide are investing considerable resources into the safe development and use of nanomaterials. Although each of these protective efforts is crucial for governing the risks of nanomaterials, they are insufficient in isolation. What is missing is a more integrative governance approach that goes beyond legislation. Development of this approach must be evidence based and involve key stakeholders to ensure acceptance by end users. The challenge is to develop a framework that coordinates the variety of actors involved in nanotechnology and civil society to facilitate consideration of the complex issues that occur in this rapidly evolving research and development area. Here, we propose three sets of essential elements required to generate an effective risk governance framework for nanomaterials. (1) Advanced tools to facilitate risk-based decision making, including an assessment of the needs of users regarding risk assessment, mitigation, and transfer. (2) An integrated model of predicted human behavior and decision making concerning nanomaterial risks. (3) Legal and other (nano-specific and general) regulatory requirements to ensure compliance and to stimulate proactive approaches to safety. The implementation of such an approach should facilitate and motivate good practice for the various stakeholders to allow the safe and sustainable future development of nanotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Führ
- Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences, Department of Social and Cultural Sciences, Society for Institutional Analysis (Sofia), Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Peter H Feindt
- Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Bouwmeester
- Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Igor Linkov
- Carnegie Mellon University and the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Concord, MA, USA
| | | | - Finbarr Murphy
- Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - Kilian Bizer
- Georg August University Göttingen, Göttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Lang Tran
- Institute of Occupational Medicine, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Marlene Ågerstrand
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES), Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Carlos Fito
- Instituto Tecnológico del Embalaje, Transporte y Logística (ITENE), Spain
| | | | | | - Enrico Bergamaschi
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - John W Cherrie
- Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
- Institute of Occupational Medicine, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Sue Cowan
- Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Michael Faure
- Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Erasmus School of Law, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Silke Gabbert
- Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Agnieszka Gajewicz
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemometrics, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Martin Mullins
- Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - Kai Purnhagen
- Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tomasz Puzyn
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemometrics, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | | | | | | | - Martie van Tongeren
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Nicolas H Voelcker
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - George Voyiatzis
- Foundation for Research & Technology, Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences (FORTH/ICE-HT), Patras, Greece
| | - Spyros N Yannopoulos
- Foundation for Research & Technology, Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences (FORTH/ICE-HT), Patras, Greece
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7
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Schulte PA, Kuempel ED, Drew NM. Characterizing risk assessments for the development of occupational exposure limits for engineered nanomaterials. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 95:207-219. [PMID: 29574195 PMCID: PMC6075708 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Revised: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The commercialization of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) began in the early 2000's. Since then the number of commercial products and the number of workers potentially exposed to ENMs is growing, as is the need to evaluate and manage the potential health risks. Occupational exposure limits (OELs) have been developed for some of the first generation of ENMs. These OELs have been based on risk assessments that progressed from qualitative to quantitative as nanotoxicology data became available. In this paper, that progression is characterized. It traces OEL development through the qualitative approach of general groups of ENMs based primarily on read-across with other materials to quantitative risk assessments for nanoscale particles including titanium dioxide, carbon nanotubes and nanofibers, silver nanoparticles, and cellulose nanocrystals. These represent prototypic approaches to risk assessment and OEL development for ENMs. Such substance-by-substance efforts are not practical given the insufficient data for many ENMs that are currently being used or potentially entering commerce. Consequently, categorical approaches are emerging to group and rank ENMs by hazard and potential health risk. The strengths and limitations of these approaches are described, and future derivations and research needs are discussed. Critical needs in moving forward with understanding the health effects of the numerous EMNs include more standardized and accessible quantitative data on the toxicity and physicochemical properties of ENMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Schulte
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States.
| | - E D Kuempel
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States
| | - N M Drew
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States
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8
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Gkika D, Magafas L, Cool P, Braet J. Balancing nanotoxicity and returns in health applications: The Prisoner’s Dilemma. Toxicology 2018; 393:83-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 11/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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9
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Drew NM, Kuempel ED, Pei Y, Yang F. A quantitative framework to group nanoscale and microscale particles by hazard potency to derive occupational exposure limits: Proof of concept evaluation. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 89:253-267. [PMID: 28789940 PMCID: PMC5875420 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The large and rapidly growing number of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) presents a challenge to assessing the potential occupational health risks. An initial database of 25 rodent studies including 1929 animals across various experimental designs and material types was constructed to identify materials that are similar with respect to their potency in eliciting neutrophilic pulmonary inflammation, a response relevant to workers. Doses were normalized across rodent species, strain, and sex as the estimated deposited particle mass dose per gram of lung. Doses associated with specific measures of pulmonary inflammation were estimated by modeling the continuous dose-response relationships using benchmark dose modeling. Hierarchical clustering was used to identify similar materials. The 18 nanoscale and microscale particles were classified into four potency groups, which varied by factors of approximately two to 100. Benchmark particles microscale TiO2 and crystalline silica were in the lowest and highest potency groups, respectively. Random forest methods were used to identify the important physicochemical predictors of pulmonary toxicity, and group assignments were correctly predicted for five of six new ENMs. Proof-of-concept was demonstrated for this framework. More comprehensive data are needed for further development and validation for use in deriving categorical occupational exposure limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan M Drew
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Nanotechnology Research Center (NTRC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA.
| | - Eileen D Kuempel
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Nanotechnology Research Center (NTRC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Ying Pei
- West Virginia University, Department of Industrial and Management System Engineering, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Feng Yang
- West Virginia University, Department of Industrial and Management System Engineering, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
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10
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Hristozov D, Gottardo S, Semenzin E, Oomen A, Bos P, Peijnenburg W, van Tongeren M, Nowack B, Hunt N, Brunelli A, Scott-Fordsmand JJ, Tran L, Marcomini A. Frameworks and tools for risk assessment of manufactured nanomaterials. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 95:36-53. [PMID: 27523267 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Commercialization of nanotechnologies entails a regulatory requirement for understanding their environmental, health and safety (EHS) risks. Today we face challenges to assess these risks, which emerge from uncertainties around the interactions of manufactured nanomaterials (MNs) with humans and the environment. In order to reduce these uncertainties, it is necessary to generate sound scientific data on hazard and exposure by means of relevant frameworks and tools. The development of such approaches to facilitate the risk assessment (RA) of MNs has become a dynamic area of research. The aim of this paper was to review and critically analyse these approaches against a set of relevant criteria. The analysis concluded that none of the reviewed frameworks were able to fulfill all evaluation criteria. Many of the existing modelling tools are designed to provide screening-level assessments rather than to support regulatory RA and risk management. Nevertheless, there is a tendency towards developing more quantitative, higher-tier models, capable of incorporating uncertainty into their analyses. There is also a trend towards developing validated experimental protocols for material identification and hazard testing, reproducible across laboratories. These tools could enable a shift from a costly case-by-case RA of MNs towards a targeted, flexible and efficient process, based on grouping and read-across strategies and compliant with the 3R (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) principles. In order to facilitate this process, it is important to transform the current efforts on developing databases and computational models into creating an integrated data and tools infrastructure to support the risk assessment and management of MNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danail Hristozov
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics, University Ca' Foscari of Venice, c/o PST Vega di Venezia - Via della Libertà 12, 30175 Marghera (VE), Italy.
| | - Stefania Gottardo
- European Commission's Joint Research Centre, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy.
| | - Elena Semenzin
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics, University Ca' Foscari of Venice, c/o PST Vega di Venezia - Via della Libertà 12, 30175 Marghera (VE), Italy.
| | - Agnes Oomen
- National Institute of Public Health & the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720, BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Peter Bos
- National Institute of Public Health & the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720, BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Willie Peijnenburg
- National Institute of Public Health & the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720, BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Martie van Tongeren
- Centre for Human Exposure Science, Institute of Occupational Medicine, Research Avenue, North, Riccarton, Edinburgh, EH14 4AP, Scotland.
| | - Bernd Nowack
- EMPA-Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Technology and Society Laboratory, CH-9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland.
| | - Neil Hunt
- The REACH Centre, Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, Lancashire, LA1 4YQ, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrea Brunelli
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics, University Ca' Foscari of Venice, c/o PST Vega di Venezia - Via della Libertà 12, 30175 Marghera (VE), Italy.
| | - Janeck J Scott-Fordsmand
- Department of Bioscience-Terrestrial Ecology, Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark.
| | - Lang Tran
- Centre for Human Exposure Science, Institute of Occupational Medicine, Research Avenue, North, Riccarton, Edinburgh, EH14 4AP, Scotland.
| | - Antonio Marcomini
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics, University Ca' Foscari of Venice, c/o PST Vega di Venezia - Via della Libertà 12, 30175 Marghera (VE), Italy.
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