Technical note: An evaluation of technology-recorded rumination and feeding behaviors in dairy heifers

The development and validation of a milk feeding behavior alert from automated feeder data to classify calves at risk for a diarrhea bout: A diagnostic accuracy study

The objective of this diagnostic accuracy study was to develop and validate an alert to identify calves at risk for a diarrhea bout using milk feeding behavior data (behavior) from automated milk feeders (AMF). We enrolled Holstein calves (n = 259) as a convenience sample size from 2 facilities that were health scored daily preweaning and offered either 10 or 15 L/d of milk replacer. For alert development, 132 calves were enrolled and the ability of milk intake, drinking speed, and rewarded visits collected from AMF to identify calves at risk for diarrhea was tested. Alerts that had high diagnostic accuracy in the alert development phase were validated using a holdout validation strategy of 127 different calves from the same facilities (all offered 15 L/d) for -3 to 1 d relative to diarrhea diagnosis. We enrolled calves that were either healthy or had a first diarrheal bout (loose feces ≥2 d or watery feces ≥1 d). Relative change and rolling dividends for each milk feeding behavior were calculated for each calf from the previous 2 d. Logistic regression models and receiver operator curves (ROC) were used to assess the diagnostic ability for relative change and rolling dividends behavior relative to alert d) to classify calves at risk for a diarrhea bout from -2 to 0 d relative to diagnosis. To maximize sensitivity (Se), alert thresholds were based on ROC optimal classification cutoff. Diagnostic accuracy was met when the alert had a moderate area under the ROC curve (≥0.70), high accuracy (Acc; ≥0.80), high Se (≥0.80), and very high precision (Pre; ≥0.85). For alert development, deviations in rolling dividend milk intake with drinking speed had the best performance (10 L/d: ROC area under the curve [AUC] = 0.79, threshold ≤0.70; 15 L/d: ROC AUC = 0.82, threshold ≤0.60). Our diagnostic criteria were only met in calves offered 15 L/d (10 L/d: Se 75%, Acc 72%, Pre 92%, specificity [Sp] 55% vs. 15 L/d: Se 91%, Acc 91%, Pre 89%, Sp 73%). For holdout validation, rolling dividend milk intake with drinking speed met diagnostic criteria for one facility (threshold ≤0.60, Se 86%, Acc 82%, Pre 94%, Sp 50%). However, no milk feeding behavior alerts met diagnostic criteria for the second facility due to poor Se (relative change milk intake -0.36 threshold, Se 71%, Acc 70%, and Pre 97%). We suggest that changes in milk feeding behavior may indicate diarrhea bouts in dairy calves. Future research should validate this alert in commercial settings; furthermore, software updates, support, and new analytics might be required for on-farm application to implement these types of alerts.

How neonatal diet affects the long-term development of rumination behavior, rumen fermentation and feed digestion in dairy calves fed a high milk level?

This study was to investigate growth performance, rumination development, rumen fermentation and feed digestion in young calves provided high volumes (about 20% of calf birth weight) of milk with or without forage inclusion and how these parameters correlate with each other. Immediately after birth, 160 newborn Holstein female calves (41.6 ± 4.2 kg of initial BW) were randomly divided into 2 treatments: 1) starter (CON, only starter) and 2) starter and hay (HAY, both starter and hay). The calves were fed their respective experimental diets from d 4 to 84, after which they were all introduced to similar diets until the end of the experiment on d 196. Treatment had no effect on growth and structural measurements throughout the experimental period. However, treatment had an effect on the other parameters, mainly during the post-weaning period. Forage supplementation tended to reduce starter dry matter intake (P = 0.05), while increasing the forage intake (P < 0.01) and the feed-to-gain ratio (P < 0.01). HAY calves had increased neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and physically effective NDF (peNDF) intakes (P < 0.05) and tended to lower (P < 0.01) starch intake compared to CON calves. The HAY calves had a higher rumination time (P < 0.01), ruminal pH (P < 0.01), and acetate-to-propionate ratio (P = 0.05) compared to the CON calves. Spearman correlation analysis showed that rumination time was positively related to the ruminal pH at d 84 (P = 0.01) and 196 (P = 0.02). The HAY calves had similar apparent total-tract digestibility of dry matter (DM), NDF and ether extract (EE), but lower digestibility of organic matter (OM, P = 0.03), crude protein (CP, P < 0.01) and starch (P < 0.01) compared to those of the CON calves at week 12. Furthermore, there were no positive relationships between rumination time and nutrient digestibility or between rumination time per kilogram DM and nutrient digestibility. In conclusion, feeding hay to calves fed a high milk level improved rumination during the post-weaning period only, without a concomitant effect on growth performance throughout the experimental period, suggesting no detrimental effect of feeding forage in calves fed high milk level.

The Effect of Feeding a Total Mixed Ration with an ad libitum or Restricted Pelleted Starter on Growth Performance, Rumination Behavior, Blood Metabolites, and Rumen Fermentation in Weaning Holstein Dairy Calves

The aim of the current study was to evaluate the effect of the starter restriction and of the ad libitum TMR (total mixed ration) inclusion on intake, growth performance, rumination time (RT), and health condition of Holstein dairy calves during weaning. We randomly assigned thirty female Holstein calves (with an average weight of 38.5 ± 1.96 kg at birth) to one of three treatments. From 21 days of age, the calves were fed one of three treatments as follows: a control diet (CTR) with an ad libitum calf starter but without TMR; Treatment 1 diet (TRT1) with both an ad libitum calf starter and ad libitum TMR; Treatment 2 diet (TRT2) with ad libitum TMR and a restricted amount of a calf starter (50% of the intake recorder in the control group day by day). Calves in the TRT2 group, between 56 and 63 days of age, had a lower body weight (80.1; 79.5; 75.6 kg for the CTR, TRT1, and TRT2 groups, respectively) compared with CTR and TRT1 calves. This outcome is ascribed to the average daily gain (0.759; 0.913; 0.508 kg/day for the CTR, TRT1, and TRT2 groups, respectively), resulting also in TRT2 being lower than CTR or TRT1 calves. The inclusion of ad libitum TMR increased the rumination time, especially after weaning (15.28 min/h, 18.38 min/h, and 18.95 min/h for the CTR, TRT1, and TRT2 groups, respectively). Concerning the rumen metabolism and inflammometabolic response, overall, no differences were observed between the three dietary treatments. In conclusion, the results indicated that a TMR could partially replace a calf starter in weaning dairy calves, since neither growth performance nor health status were impaired. In addition, providing TMR (with or without concentrate restriction) led to a better rumen development and likely a better rumen fermentation efficiency in post-weaning.

The age at first consumption of forage in calves and its effect on growth and rumination in the short- and long-term

BACKGROUND

Previous investigations into the effect of dietary forage on calf performance have been inconsistent, and there is a paucity of information exploring the effect of age on the growth performance and rumination of calves. Eighty-four female Holstein calves (41.5 ± 4.2 kg) were enrolled at birth, a subset of the calves were fed calf starter only (CON, n = 21) while the rest (n = 63) were classified into three treatment groups: the early (EHAY, n = 26, 5.1 ± 0.8 d), the middle (MHAY, n = 21, 7.9 ± 0.8 d) and the late (LHAY, n = 16, 12.1 ± 1.4 d) hay consumers. The short-term effect of the age at first forage consumption (AFF) on calves' feed intake was monitored until d 84. In addition, the long-term effects of AFF on body weight, structural growth and rumination behavior were recorded until d 196. Rumen samples were collected on d 1, 7, 35, 84 and 196 to analyze the rumen fermentation, while fecal samples were collected from d 78 to 84 to estimate digestibility parameters.

RESULTS

Treatment had no effect on feed intake. While, the EHAY calves tended to have lower BW and ADG compared to LHAY and CON calves. Several total-tract apparent digestibility parameters and digestible nutrients intake were significantly lower in EHAY calves compared with CON and LHAY calves. Calves in the EHAY group tended to begin ruminating ealier, while CON calves were the latest (12.3 vs. 15.5 days of age). A treatment and time interaction was present for rumination time due to greater rumination in calves consuming hay compared to CON calves in week 10 to 12, the differences in rumination disappeared afterwards, no long-lasting significant differences in the rumination and rumen fermentation parameters were found between treatments.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, this study showed that hay consumption earlier in life (in the first week, around 5 days of life) could negatively affect the growth of the calf in the short and long term. Compared to consuming hay from the second week (around 12 days of life) or feeding concentrate only without hay, starting to consume hay from the first week could compromise nutrient digestibility and digestible nutrient intake independent of developing rumination behaviour and rumen fermentation.

Automatically Identifying Sickness Behavior in Grazing Lambs with an Acceleration Sensor

Acute disease of grazing animals can lead to alterations in behavioral patterns. Relatively recent advances in accelerometer technology have resulted in commercial products, which can be used to remotely detect changes in animals' behavior, the pattern and extent of which may provide an indicator of disease challenge and animal health status. The objective of this study was to determine if changes in behavior during use of a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge model can be detected using ear-mounted accelerometers in grazing lambs. LPS infusion elevated rectal temperatures from 39.31 °C to 39.95 °C, indicating successful establishment of an acute fever response for comparison with groups (p < 0.001). For each of the five recorded behaviors, time spent eating, ruminating, not active, active, and highly active, the accelerometers were able to detect an effect of LPS challenge. Compared with the control, there were significant effects of LPS infusion by hour interaction on durations of eating (-6.71 min/h, p < 0.001), inactive behavior (+16.00 min/h, p < 0.001), active behavior (-8.39 min/h, p < 0.001), and highly active behavior (-2.90 min/h, p < 0.001) with a trend for rumination time (-1.41 min/h, p = 0.075) in lambs after a single LPS infusion. Results suggest that current sensors have the capability to correctly identify behaviors of grazing lambs, raising the possibility of detecting changes in animals' health status.

Literature Review on Technological Applications to Monitor and Evaluate Calves' Health and Welfare

Precision livestock farming (PLF) research is rapidly increasing and has improved farmers' quality of life, animal welfare, and production efficiency. PLF research in dairy calves is still relatively recent but has grown in the last few years. Automatic milk feeding systems (AMFS) and 3D accelerometers have been the most extensively used technologies in dairy calves. However, other technologies have been emerging in dairy calves' research, such as infrared thermography (IRT), 3D cameras, ruminal bolus, and sound analysis systems, which have not been properly validated and reviewed in the scientific literature. Thus, with this review, we aimed to analyse the state-of-the-art of technological applications in calves, focusing on dairy calves. Most of the research is focused on technology to detect and predict calves' health problems and monitor pain indicators. Feeding and lying behaviours have sometimes been associated with health and welfare levels. However, a consensus opinion is still unclear since other factors, such as milk allowance, can affect these behaviours differently. Research that employed a multi-technology approach showed better results than research focusing on only a single technique. Integrating and automating different technologies with machine learning algorithms can offer more scientific knowledge and potentially help the farmers improve calves' health, performance, and welfare, if commercial applications are available, which, from the authors' knowledge, are not at the moment.

Using rumination time to manage health and reproduction in dairy cattle: a review

Early detection of disease is the key to successful management of the dairy cattle which leads to timely treatment and prevention of costs associated with prolonged treatment and reduced milk yield. Electronic systems that allow for monitoring of physiological parameters like rumination, are now commercially available. This review paper discusses different aspects of rumination time that could be used to monitor the health and reproduction of dairy cattle. This review paper explored different areas where rumination time could be utilized in monitoring dairy cattle at calving, during the estrus period, during heat stressed conditions, and to detect diseases and transition cow disorders. In conclusion, rumination time could be used as an indicator of the health status in dairy cattle.

Wearable Wireless Biosensor Technology for Monitoring Cattle: A Review

The review aimed to collect information about the wearable wireless sensor system (WWSS) for cattle and to conduct a systematic literature review on the accuracy of predicting the physiological parameters of these systems. The WWSS was categorized as an ear tag, halter, neck collar, rumen bolus, leg tag, tail-mounted, and vaginal mounted types. Information was collected from a web-based search on Google, then manually curated. We found about 60 WWSSs available in the market; most sensors included an accelerometer. The literature evaluating the WWSS performance was collected through a keyword search in Scopus. Among the 1875 articles identified, 46 documents that met our criteria were selected for further meta-analysis. Meta-analysis was conducted on the performance values (e.g., correlation, sensitivity, and specificity) for physiological parameters (e.g., feeding, activity, and rumen conditions). The WWSS showed high performance in most parameters, although some parameters (e.g., drinking time) need to be improved, and considerable heterogeneity of performance levels was observed under various conditions (average I² = 76%). Nevertheless, some of the literature provided insufficient information on evaluation criteria, including experimental conditions and gold standards, to confirm the reliability of the reported performance. Therefore, guidelines for the evaluation criteria for studies evaluating WWSS performance should be drawn up.

A Systematic Review on Commercially Available and Validated Sensor Technologies for Welfare Assessment of Dairy Cattle

In order to base welfare assessment of dairy cattle on real-time measurement, integration of valid and reliable precision livestock farming (PLF) technologies is needed. The aim of this study was to provide a systematic overview of externally validated and commercially available PLF technologies, which could be used for sensor-based welfare assessment in dairy cattle. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify externally validated sensor technologies. Out of 1,111 publications initially extracted from databases, only 42 studies describing 30 tools (including prototypes) met requirements for external validation. Moreover, through market search, 129 different retailed technologies with application for animal-based welfare assessment were identified. In total, only 18 currently retailed sensors have been externally validated (14%). The highest validation rate was found for systems based on accelerometers (30% of tools available on the market have validation records), while the lower rates were obtained for cameras (10%), load cells (8%), miscellaneous milk sensors (8%), and boluses (7%). Validated traits concerned animal activity, feeding and drinking behavior, physical condition, and health of animals. The majority of tools were validated on adult cows. Non-active behavior (lying and standing) and rumination were the most often validated for the high performance. Regarding active behavior (e.g., walking), lower performance of tools was reported. Also, tools used for physical condition (e.g., body condition scoring) and health evaluation (e.g., mastitis detection) were classified in lower performance group. The precision and accuracy of feeding and drinking assessment varied depending on measured trait and used sensor. Regarding relevance for animal-based welfare assessment, several validated technologies had application for good health (e.g., milk quality sensors) and good feeding (e.g., load cells, accelerometers). Accelerometers-based systems have also practical relevance to assess good housing. However, currently available PLF technologies have low potential to assess appropriate behavior of dairy cows. To increase actors' trust toward the PLF technology and prompt sensor-based welfare assessment, validation studies, especially in commercial herds, are needed. Future research should concentrate on developing and validating PLF technologies dedicated to the assessment of appropriate behavior and tools dedicated to monitoring the health and welfare in calves and heifers.

Towards sensor-based calving detection in the rangelands: a systematic review of credible behavioral and physiological indicators

Calving is a critical point in both a cow and calf’s life, when both become more susceptible to disease and risk of death. Ideally, this period is carefully monitored. In extensive grazing systems, however, it is often not economically or physically possible for producers to continuously monitor animals, and thus, calving frequently goes undetected. The development of sensor systems, particularly in these environments, could provide significant benefits to the industry by increasing the quantity and quality of individual animal monitoring. In the time surrounding calving, cows undergo a series of behavioral and physiological changes, which can potentially be detected using sensing technologies. Before developing a sensor-based approach, it is worthwhile considering these behavioral and physiological changes, such that the appropriate technologies can be designed and developed. A systematic literature review was conducted to identify changes in the dam’s behavioral and physiological states in response to a calving event. Articles (n = 104) consisting of 111 independent experiments were assessed following an intensive search of electronic databases. Commonly reported indicators of parturition (n = 38) were identified, and temporal trend graphs were generated for 13 of these changes. The results compare trends in behavioral and physiological changes across a variety of animal-related factors and identifies several reliable indicators of parturition for detection with sensors, namely calf grooming behavior, changes in rumination duration, and lying bouts. This synthesis of literature suggests that variability exists between individuals and thus, combining several calving indicators may result in a more broadly applicable and accurate detection of parturition.

Symposium review: Precision technologies for dairy calves and management applications

There is an increasing interest in using precision dairy technologies (PDT) to monitor real-time animal behavior and physiology in livestock systems around the world. Although PDT in adult cattle is extensively reviewed, PDT use for the management of preweaned dairy calves has not been reviewed. We systematically reviewed research on the use and application of precision technologies in calves. Accelerometers have the potential to be used to monitor lying behavior, step activity, and rumination, which are useful to detect changes in behavior that may be indicative of disease, responses to painful procedures, or positive welfare behaviors such as play. Automated calf feeding systems can control delivery of nutritional plans to individualize feeding and weaning of calves; changes in feeding behaviors (such as milk intake, drinking speed, and unrewarded visits) may also be used to identify early onset of disease. The PDT devices also measure physiological and physical attributes in dairy calves. For instance, temperature monitoring devices such as infrared thermography, ruminal boluses, and implanted microchips have been assessed in calves, but no herd management-based commercial system is available. Many other PDT are in development with potential to be used in dairy calf management, such as image and acoustic-based monitoring, real-time location, and use of enrichment items for monitoring positive emotional states. We conclude that PDT have great potential for application in dairy calf management, enabling precise behavioral and physiological monitoring, targeted feeding programs, and identification of calves with poor health or behavioral impairments. We strongly encourage further development and validation of commercially available technologies for on-farm application of the monitoring of dairy calf welfare, performance, and health.