Bovine Claw and Limb Disorders Related to Reproductive Performance and Production Diseases

Effect of Dam Body Conformations on Birth Traits of Calves in Chinese Holsteins

The objective of this study was to explore the effect of dam body conformations on birth traits including stillbirth, dystocia, gestation length and birth weight of Chinese Holstein calves and to provide a reference for improving cow reproductive performance. We collected phenotype data on 20 conformation traits of Chinese Holstein cows and analyzed the impact of dam conformation trait linear scores on stillbirth, dystocia, gestation length and calf birth weight. The feet angle, set of rear legs, fore udder attachment and rear attachment height traits of the dairy cows significantly affected the risk of stillbirth. The risk of dystocia decreases with the increase in stature and pin width. The bone quality of dairy cows had a significant positive correlation with gestation length. There was a significant positive correlation between fore udder attachment and calf weight at birth. The birth weight of calves from cows with high body conformation traits was significantly higher than that of calves with a low composite score. These results suggest that improving the body conformation traits, especially the selection of mammary system and body shape total score, will be beneficial in improving the reproductive performance of dairy cows.

Effect of claw blocks on the healing duration and lesion severities of claw lesions in lame cows in Western Thailand

Background and Aim: Lameness is a major complication in dairy cattle affecting health and milk production. Several factors are found to contribute to this condition and specific treatments are required, including the process of claw trimming. The elevation of the claw, such as with the application of a claw block, was reported to be beneficial in the more severe cases. This study aimed to determine the efficiency of a claw block on claw lesions of lame cows in dairy farms in Western Thailand. Materials and Methods: Locomotion scores of 376 dairy cows were determined by a veterinarian using a scale of 1–5 (1 = normal; 5 = severely lame) at the time of the visit. Cows with a score of 3 or greater were defined as clinically lame. In total, 134 clinically lame cows from 11 dairy farms in the Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi provinces were included in the analysis. Claw lesions included a white line abscess, bruised sole, sole ulcer, sole abscess, white line separate, and double soles. Wooden or rubber claw blocks were applied to the unaffected claw of the same hoof as the injured claw of 116 cows, which were classified as the treatment cases, and 18 cows were left untreated and classified as the control cases. Each cow was checked on every week of the healing process for 2 months unless the cow was culled earlier. Survival analysis was based on the Kaplan–Meier estimator and Cox Proportional Hazard regression. Results: The median healing time for lame cows with and without claw blocks was 21 and 36 days, respectively. After adjusting for the lesion severity and type, the lame cows with and without a claw block had hazard ratios of 2.16 and 3.08, respectively. The healing times between the four lesion types in cows with a claw block were not significantly different. The healing time was longer in lame cows, with a severity score of 4. Conclusion: The results from this study reveal that the treatment of lame cows with claw blocks promoted the healing capacity of claw lesions after claw trimming.

Integrated infrared thermography and accelerometer-based behavior logger as a hoof lesion identification tool in dairy cows with various foot diseases under subtropical climates

Infrared thermography (IRT) can measure a temperature change on the surface of objects, and is widely used as an inflammation or fever detection tool. The objective of this longitudinal study was to investigate the feasibility of detecting hoof lesion cattle using IRT under subtropical climate conditions. The experiment was conducted in two free-stall commercial dairy farms and 502 dairy cows participated between August 2020 and March 2022. Before hoof trimming, the portable IRT was used to measure the maximum temperature of each hoof from three shooting directions, including anterior (hoof coronary band), lateral (hoof lateral coronary band), and posterior (skin between heel and bulbs). In order to evaluate the effect of hoof lesions on the behavior of dairy cows, we also collected behavior data by automated accelerometers. The results indicated that the temperature of hooves with lesions was significantly higher than that of sound hooves in hot environments regardless of the shooting directions (P < 0.0001). In all of three shooting directions, the maximum temperature of feet with severe lesion was significantly higher than those of feet with mild lesion and sound feet (P < 0.05). Cows with lesion feet had lower daily activity and feeding time than sound cows before clinical diagnosis (P < 0.05). Furthermore, we used thresholds of both anterior hoof temperature at 32.05 °C and average daily activity at 410.5 (arbitrary unit/d) as a lame cow detecting tool. The agreement of this integrated tool reached 75% with clinical diagnosis, indicating that this integrated approach may be feasible for practice in dairy farm. In conclusion, IRT has the potential to be used as a hoof lesion detecting tool under subtropical climate conditions when using sound hoof temperature as reference points, and detection precision can be improved when IRT integrated with automated accelerometers as a lame cow detecting tool.

Development of an equation to screen for solar hemorrhages from digital cushion ultrasound texture analysis in veal calves at slaughter

Claw disorders are a relevant welfare issue in the cattle industry, fast and accurate diagnoses are essential for successful treatment and prevention. The present study aimed to develop an equation to assess the presence of solar hemorrhages from real-time ultrasound images texture analysis at slaughter. Eighty-eight hind feet were collected at the slaughterhouse from 44 Holstein male veal calves. The claws were trimmed by a veterinarian hoof-trimmer, approximately 30 min after the calves' slaughter, and classified into healthy and affected by solar hemorrhages. At the same time, ultrasound images were collected for each claw. Sole soft tissues' thickness was measured, and texture analysis was performed using MaZda software. The resulting parameters from sole soft tissues' measurements and texture analysis were screened with a stepwise linear discriminant analysis using the absence or presence (0/1) of solar hemorrhages as the dependent variable. Results from the stepwise analysis identified 9 variables (among 279) as predictors, and an equation was developed and used to predict the presence or absence of solar hemorrhages on the scanned claws by binary measure: values ≤0.5 counted as 0, while those >0.5 as 1. Validation of the equation was performed by testing predicted lesions (LESpred) against the clinically evaluated lesions (LESeval) with a confusion matrix, a ROC analysis, and a precision-recall curve. Results of the present study suggest that the equation proposed has a good potential for detecting effectively hemorrhages of the sole by ultrasound imaging texture means, and could be used to monitor unsatisfactory housing and management conditions at the farm level, and for early management intervention and prevention.

Prevalence of Sole ulcer in Dairy Cows Exposed to Heat Stress

The aim of this study was to investigate the seasonal thermal effect on the prevalence of the sole ulcer in dairy cows. The observations were performed on a Holstein-Friesian (HF) dairy farm in Eastern Slovakia. The clinical signs of heat stress were recognised in several animals during the afternoon milking on July 8, 2015. The claw examination done three months after the heat stress episode was compared with three examinations: twelve and two months prior to the heat stress and ten months afterward. The orthopaedic examinations were focused on the prevalence of the sole ulcer. Statistical analysis was performed by running a chi-squared test. The temperature-humidity index (THI) on July 8, 2015, was 88. We found 15.2 %, 18.6 %, 28.1 %, and 12.9 % cows with sole ulcer in the autumn 2014, spring 2015, autumn 2015, and spring of the following year, respectively (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the results of our observations showed that the heat stress in dairy cows can be associated with an increase in the prevalence of the sole ulcer.

Preventive Hoof Trimming and Animal-Based Welfare Measures Influence the Time to First Lameness Event and Hoof Lesion Prevalence in Dairy Cows

Background: The objectives of this study were to, (1) investigate the impact of the Dutch five-step hoof trimming (HT) technique on time to lameness and hoof lesion prevalence in grazing (GR) and non-grazing (NGR) dairy cows, and (2) determine the association between potential benefits of HT and animal-based welfare measures during lactation. A total of 520 non-lame cows without hoof lesions from 5 dairy farms (GR = 2, NGR = 3) were enrolled at early (within 30 days in milk; DIM) and late lactation (above 200 DIM), and randomly allocated to either trimmed (HGR or HNGR) or control groups (CON-GR and CON-NGR). Locomotion scores, body condition, hock condition, leg hygiene, and hoof health were assessed at monthly intervals until the following 270 days in milk. The data were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, multivariable Cox, and logistic regression models. The overall incidence rate of lameness was 36.2 cases/100 cows/month, with corresponding rates of 27.4, 31.9, 48.4, and 45.8 cases/100 cows/month in HGR, HNGR, CON-GR, and CON-NGR, respectively. Time to first lameness event was significantly higher in HGR (mean ± S.E; 8.12 ± 0.15) compared to CON-GR (7.36 ± 0.26), and in HNGR (8.05 ± 0.16) compared to CON-NGR (7.39 ± 0.23). The prevalence of hoof lesions in the enrolled cows was 36.9%, with a higher occurrence in CON-GR (48.8%) than HGR (23.2%), and in CON-NGR (52.6%) compared to HNGR (32.2%). The majority of hoof lesions were non-infectious in grazing (HGR vs. CON-GR; 21.3 vs. 33.3%) and non-grazing herds (HNGR vs. CON-NGR; 25.0 vs. 40.4%). The risk of lameness was higher in underconditioned cows (Hazard ratio; HR = 3.1, 95% CI 1.2-7.4), presence of hoof lesion (HR = 33.1, 95% CI 17.6-62.5), and there was variation between farms. Aside HT, lower parity (OR = 0.4, 95% CI 0.2-0.8), normal hock condition (OR = 0.06; 95% 0.01-0.29), and absence of overgrown hoof (OR = 0.4; 95% 0.2-0.7) were protective against non-infectious hoof lesions. Functional HT is beneficial as a lameness preventive strategy during lactation; however, ensuring older cows are in good body condition and free from hock injuries are equally important.

Cow- and herd-level factors associated with lameness in dairy farms in Peninsular Malaysia

Lameness is a major welfare issue in dairy cows. This study was aimed at investigating the cow- and herd -level factors associated with lameness in dairy farms from four states in Peninsular Malaysia. The study population was 1001 lactating cows from 28 dairy farms located in Selangor (n = 9), Perak (n = 8), Negeri Sembilan (n = 6) and Johor (n = 5). Lameness was assessed by locomotion scoring. Individual cow characteristics such as breeds, parity, body condition score (BCS), hock condition, leg hygiene, presence of claw lesion and claw overgrowth were recorded. Data on herd characteristics, management practices and housing design were collected by on-farm inspection and farmers' interview. Mixed-eff ;ects logistic regressions were used to model the data and to assess the factors associated with lameness. Cow-level lameness prevalence was 34.2 % (95 % CI 22.2-50.0 %), with all the farms having at least one case of lameness. Claw lesions were recorded in 470 cows (46.9 %; CI 33.3-63.3 %) of which 296 (62.9 %) of them were lame. Of these, 78.9 % of the lesions were present on the rear feet and 25.5% of the cows had more than one foot affected. The proportion of cows having non-infectious and infectious claw lesions were 81.9 % and 18.1 %, and the predominant claw lesions were sole ulcers (24.9 %), white line disease (19.6 %), sole haemorrhage (10.2%), swelling of coronet (9.6 %), toe ulcers (8.4 %), and digital dermatitis (5.6%). Cows at third or more parities had higher odds of lameness (OR = 2.2; 95 % CI 1.2-4.1) compared to primiparous cows. Low BCS (< 2.5) increased the odds of lameness (OR = 4.8; 95 % CI 2.9-7.9) relative to cows with moderate BCS, and cows with hair loss around the hock (OR = 1.4; 95 % CI 1.1-1.9) relative to those with normal hock condition. Greater odds of being lame was observed in cows having claw lesion (OR = 15.2; 95 % CI 10.4-19.2) and those with overgrown claw (OR = 3.3; 95 % CI 2.4-4.5). There was increased odds of lameness in farms with high stocking density (OR = 1.8; 95 % CI 1.1-3.1), concrete floored walkways (OR = 1.9; 95 % CI 1.0-3.6), dirty floors (OR = 2.3; 95 % CI 1.9-3.7), and practicing preventive claw trimming (OR = 2.3; 95 % CI 1.9-4.6). Based on the high lameness prevalence, these findings could assist dairy farmers to make informed decisions on areas to implement on-farm changes to reduce lameness in the studied herds.

Estimating Conformational Traits in Dairy Cattle With DeepAPS: A Two-Step Deep Learning Automated Phenotyping and Segmentation Approach

Assessing conformation features in an accurate and rapid manner remains a challenge in the dairy industry. While recent developments in computer vision has greatly improved automated background removal, these methods have not been fully translated to biological studies. Here, we present a composite method (DeepAPS) that combines two readily available algorithms in order to create a precise mask for an animal image. This method performs accurately when compared with manual classification of proportion of coat color with an adjusted R² = 0.926. Using the output mask, we are able to automatically extract useful phenotypic information for 14 additional morphological features. Using pedigree and image information from a web catalog (www.semex.com), we estimated high heritabilities (ranging from h² = 0.18–0.82), indicating that meaningful biological information has been extracted automatically from imaging data. This method can be applied to other datasets and requires only a minimal number of image annotations (∼50) to train this partially supervised machine-learning approach. DeepAPS allows for the rapid and accurate quantification of multiple phenotypic measurements while minimizing study cost. The pipeline is available at https://github.com/lauzingaretti/deepaps.

Spinal Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Damage Mediate Chronic Pain in Lame Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

Chronic inflammatory diseases could impact central nervous system homeostasis, being oxidative damage of the dorsal horn, a relevant mechanism mediating central sensitization. Chronic inflammatory lameness in dairy cows is a painful condition that affects animal welfare, affecting dairy production worldwide. This study reveals increased levels of reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde, and carbonyl groups, indicating lipid and protein damage in the spinal cord of cows with chronic lameness. Moreover, antioxidant system activity was similar between lame and non-lame cows which suggests that antioxidant dysregulation was not the cause of oxidative damage, as has been proposed previously. Based on the fact that nociceptive pathways are strongly conserved between species, there is no reason to neglect that chronic pain in cows promotes Central Nervous System (CNS) alterations, such as oxidative damage. Moreover, lame cows develop central sensitization, as allodynia and hyperalgesia are centrally and not peripherally mediated. Our results support the current assumption that chronic pain is a central nervous system disease and lameness in dairy cows is far beyond an inflammation of the hoof.

Abstract

Lameness in dairy cows is a worldwide prevalent disease with a negative impact on animal welfare and herd economy. Oxidative damage and antioxidant system dysfunction are common features of many CNS diseases, including chronic pain. The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative damage markers in the spinal cord of dairy cows with chronic inflammatory lameness. Locomotion score was performed in order to select cows with chronic lameness. Dorsal horn spinal cord samples were obtained post mortem from lumbar segments (L2–L5), and ROS, malondialdehyde (MDA), and carbonyl groups were measured along with the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and total antioxidant response (TAR). Lame cows had increased levels of ROS, MDA, and carbonyl groups, while no differences were observed between lame and non-lame cows in SOD, GPx, CAT, and TAR activity. We conclude that painful chronic inflammatory lameness in dairy cows is associated with an increase in ROS, MDA, and carbonyl groups. Nonetheless, an association between ROS generation and dysfunction of the antioxidant system, as previously proposed, could not be established.

Aetiology, Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Control of Foot-Related Lameness in Dairy Sheep

During the last twenty years, considerable research efforts have recognized the consequences of foot-related lameness primarily in cattle, and meat and wool sheep. Despite the lack of extensive epidemiological studies, field observations and isolated research reports in dairy sheep have suggested that the problem might be more severe in semi-intensive and intensive farming systems. Footrot, contagious ovine digital dermatitis, ovine interdigital dermatitis, white line disease, and pedal joint abscess are the most common causes of foot-related lameness. Dichelobacter nodosus, Fusobacterium necrophorum, Treponema spp., and Actinomyces pyogenes are the most significant foot-related lameness-associated pathogens. Despite a documented hereditary predisposition, environmental factors are the most important in determining the occurrence of foot-related lameness. Moist and warm environment, increased parity and milk yield, inappropriate housing conditions and infrastructures, inadequate hygiene status, imbalanced nutrition, and insufficient foot care are the most critical risk factors. Furthermore, a foot-lameness control plan should include targeted implementation of claw trimming and footbathing, evidence-based planning of hygiene measures in preventive veterinary practices (i.e., antibiotic administration, vaccinations against footrot), selective breeding to footrot resistance, and, most importantly, the continuous training of farming personnel. Controlling foot-lameness in dairy sheep is critical in determining the well-being of animals, and strongly affects the farm's profitability and sustainability.

Comparison of physical and behavioral traits between dairy cows with low and high somatic cell count

The objective of this study was to examine associations of locomotion score, hygiene, body condition score (BCS), lying behavior, and milk production with dairy cow somatic cell count (SCC; low or high). Cows from 14 commercial free-stall dairy herds in Ontario, Canada were enrolled in a cross-sectional study. Each farm was visited for a total of 3 observation periods (at 5-wk intervals) on 2 occasions per period (7 d apart) until 3 Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI) milk tests had been completed. Upon immediate receiving of the results of each DHI test, lactating Holstein cows were selected according to SCC. Cows that ranked in the top 10% for SCC in each herd (≥200,000 cells/mL; n = 370) were first selected and paired based on parity and DIM to cows within the same herd with low SCC (≤100,000 cells/mL; n = 382). Lying behavior was recorded for selected cows for 6 d after each milk test sampling, using data loggers. On the visit where data loggers were attached, cows were scored for gait (1 = sound to 5 = lame) and hygiene of udder, lower legs, and upper legs/flank (1 = clean to 4 = dirty). On the visit where data loggers were removed 7 d later, BCS (1 = thin to 5 = fat) and hygiene were scored. Cows were then classified into each of the scoring categories for hygiene (clean: ≤ 2, dirty: ≥3), BCS (high: ≥4, normal: 3-3.5, low: ≤2.5), and gait (sound: ≤2, lame: ≥ 3). As compared to normal BCS cows, low BCS cows were associated with high SCC (OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.00-2.47). Cows with high SCC were associated with producing 2.2 ± 0.72 kg/d less milk than those with low SCC. As compared to normal BCS cows, low BCS cows were associated with reduced lying time (-27.2 ± 12.5 min/d), decreased lower leg hygiene (OR = 2.64, 95% CI = 1.08-6.46), and increased milk production (+2.9 ± 0.88 kg/d). These results suggest that low BCS may be a mediating factor among lying behavior, hygiene, and production level with high SCC.

Hock lesions in dairy cows in freestall herds: a cross-sectional study of prevalence and risk factors

Background

Hock lesions (HL) in dairy cows are a common animal welfare problem in modern dairy production with freestall housing systems, but there are no large-scale studies addressing its epidemiology in Sweden. The aims of this cross-sectional study were to investigate the prevalence of HL of different severity in 100 Swedish freestall dairy herds, and to identify cow- and herd-related risk factors. Associations between HL and mastitis as well as culling were also investigated.

Results

In total, 3217 cows from 99 herds were included in the statistical analyses. The overall cow prevalence of hair loss on the hock (mild HL) was 68% and the prevalence of ulceration or evident swelling of the hock, with or without hair loss, (severe HL) was 6%. The within-herd prevalence varied among herds, between 23 and 100% for mild HL, and between 0 and 32% for severe ones. Breed (higher risk for Swedish Holstein than for Swedish Red) and days in milk (higher risk at 181–305 days than at 0–90 days) were cow-related risk factors associated with both types of lesions, whereas higher parity and cleaner cows were associated only with increased risk of severe HL. A reduced risk for mild HL was seen in cows housed on mattresses compared to rubber mats, and in cows housed on peat compared to other bedding materials. Also, cows in herds with a high proportion of not yet inseminated heifers older than 17 months had a lower risk of mild HL than cows in herds with a low proportion. Risk for severe HL was lower when cubicles were of recommended width compared to under recommendation, for organic production compared to conventional, and when teat dip or no treatment after milking was used, compared to teat spray. For both mild and severe HL, herringbone milking parlors were associated with higher risk than tandem parlors. We found no significant associations between HL and mastitis or culling.

Conclusions

The prevalence of HL is high in Swedish dairy herds, although most lesions are mild. Several cow- and herd-related risk factors were identified and the results can be used to improve recommendations for the prevention of HL in Swedish freestall dairy herds.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13028-018-0401-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Farm-specific economic value of automatic lameness detection systems in dairy cattle: From concepts to operational simulations

Although prototypes of automatic lameness detection systems for dairy cattle exist, information about their economic value is lacking. In this paper, a conceptual and operational framework for simulating the farm-specific economic value of automatic lameness detection systems was developed and tested on 4 system types: walkover pressure plates, walkover pressure mats, camera systems, and accelerometers. The conceptual framework maps essential factors that determine economic value (e.g., lameness prevalence, incidence and duration, lameness costs, detection performance, and their relationships). The operational simulation model links treatment costs and avoided losses with detection results and farm-specific information, such as herd size and lameness status. Results show that detection performance, herd size, discount rate, and system lifespan have a large influence on economic value. In addition, lameness prevalence influences the economic value, stressing the importance of an adequate prior estimation of the on-farm prevalence. The simulations provide first estimates for the upper limits for purchase prices of automatic detection systems. The framework allowed for identification of knowledge gaps obstructing more accurate economic value estimation. These include insights in cost reductions due to early detection and treatment, and links between specific lameness causes and their related losses. Because this model provides insight in the trade-offs between automatic detection systems' performance and investment price, it is a valuable tool to guide future research and developments.

Association between Lameness and Indicators of Dairy Cow Welfare Based on Locomotion Scoring, Body and Hock Condition, Leg Hygiene and Lying Behavior

Simple Summary

Lameness is a major welfare issue in dairy cows. Locomotion scoring (LS) is mostly used in identifying lame cows based on gait and postural changes. However, lameness shares some important associations with body condition, hock condition, leg hygiene and behavioral changes such as lying behavior. These measures are considered animal-based indicators in assessing welfare in dairy cows. This review discusses lameness as a welfare problem, the use of LS, and the relationship with the aforementioned welfare assessment protocols. Such information could be useful in depicting the impact on cow welfare as well as in reducing the occurrence of lameness in dairy herds.

Abstract

Dairy cow welfare is an important consideration for optimal production in the dairy industry. Lameness affects the welfare of dairy herds by limiting productivity. Whilst the application of LS systems helps in identifying lame cows, the technique meets with certain constraints, ranging from the detection of mild gait changes to on-farm practical applications. Recent studies have shown that certain animal-based measures considered in welfare assessment, such as body condition, hock condition and leg hygiene, are associated with lameness in dairy cows. Furthermore, behavioural changes inherent in lame cows, especially the comfort in resting and lying down, have been shown to be vital indicators of cow welfare. Highlighting the relationship between lameness and these welfare indicators could assist in better understanding their role, either as risk factors or as consequences of lameness. Nevertheless, since the conditions predisposing a cow to lameness are multifaceted, it is vital to cite the factors that could influence the on-farm practical application of such welfare indicators in lameness studies. This review begins with the welfare consequences of lameness by comparing normal and abnormal gait as well as the use of LS system in detecting lame cows. Animal-based measures related to cow welfare and links with changes in locomotion as employed in lameness research are discussed. Finally, alterations in lying behaviour are also presented as indicators of lameness with the corresponding welfare implication in lame cows.

Pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin administered via intravenous regional limb perfusion in dairy cows: evaluation of two different tourniquets

Objectives

This study evaluated synovial and systemic plasma pharmacokinetic variables of marbofloxacin after a single intravenous regional limb perfusion (IVRLP) performed using two different tourniquets in clinically healthy, standing, non-sedated dairy cows. The authors hypothesised that the type of tourniquet used for IVRLP would influence the synovial fluid concentration of marbofloxacin in the perfused distal limb.

Design

The study had a randomised parallel-group design.

Methods

Ten adult dairy cows were included. Unilateral hindlimb IVRLP through the dorsal common digital III vein was performed in two groups of five cows (group 1: wide rubber tourniquet; group 2: manual pneumatic tourniquet) using 0.67 mg/kg of marbofloxacin. The tourniquet was applied proximal to the tarsus and maintained for 30 minutes. Samples of jugular blood and synovial fluid from the tibiotarsal joints of the perfused limb were obtained before and at intervals after IVRLP. All samples were analysed for drug concentrations using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined to establish the influence of tourniquet types. Differences were considered significant at P≤0.05.

Results

No adverse effects from the procedure or marbofloxacin were observed in any animal. Significant differences in synovial concentrations and pharmacokinetic parameters were measured. The mean ± sd areas under the concentration versus time curve from time 0 to 24 hours were 178.98±58.08 µg hour/ml for group 2 and 21.11±9.93 µg hour/ml for group 1. The mean ± sd maximum marbofloxacin concentrations were 75.50±10.19 µg/ml for group 2 and 6.35±1.47 µg/ml for group 1.

Conclusions

Performing IVRLP using the dorsal common digital III vein and a manual pneumatic tourniquet set at 300 mmHg above the tarsus in standing cows resulted in significantly higher marbofloxacin concentrations in the tibiotarsal joint compared with those with the wide rubber tourniquet.

Trial registration

Local ethical committee (number 41/2012/CEISA).

Association of claw disorders with subclinical intramammary infections in Egyptian dairy cows

AIM

Bovine mastitis and lameness are the most common production diseases affecting dairy farms worldwide resulting in huge economic impact and impaired animal welfare. The objective of this field study was to investigate the association of infectious and non-infectious claw disorders with the occurrence of subclinical intramammary infections (IMIs) diagnosed by California mastitis test (CMT) in dairy cows under Egyptian conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 43 dairy cows were included in this field study. Subclinical IMI was diagnosed by CMT on all lactating quarters of cows. A cow was considered to have subclinical IMI if it had at least one subclinically infected quarter (≥3). Cows were inspected carefully for claw disorders that recorded based on type and site. Locomotion and body condition scores were also recorded for each cow in addition to the limb affected. The association between the CMT and other explanatory variables was tested by Fisher's exact test.

RESULTS

The prevalence of infectious and non-infectious claw disorders was 81.4% (35/43) and 32.6% (14/43), respectively. Digital dermatitis (DD) and heel horn erosion were the most prevalent infectious type with 79% (34/43) and 58% (25/43), respectively, while wall fissure was the most identified non-infectious one 11.6% (5/43). The prevalence of claw disorders in hind limbs was 88.4% (38/43) and 11.6% (5/43) in the forelimbs. Infectious claw disorders were significantly associated with the subclinical IMI diagnosed by CMT (p<0.05). Non-infectious claw affections, locomotion score, body condition score, and the affected limb had no association with the occurrence of subclinical IMI.

CONCLUSION

DD is the highest prevalent claw disorder observed in dairy cows in Egypt. The hind limbs are more susceptible to claw disorders than the forelimbs. Infectious type of claw disorders is significantly associated with subclinical IMI diagnosed by CMT in dairy cows under Egyptian conditions indicating that the infectious types of claw affections may influence the udder health.

[Prevalence and severity of lameness in early lactation in dairy cows and the effect on reproductive performance]

OBJECTIVE

To examine the impact of different degrees of lameness on the fertility of dairy cows.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Seven dairy herds housed in free stall barns with cubicles were visited at 4-week intervals and all cows were examined for locomotion characteristics using a locomotion scoring system. The cows received scores from 1 (normal gait) to 5 (severely lame). During the study period of 18 months, 893 cows in the first month of lactation and 944 cows in the second, third and fourth months of lactation were evaluated. Reproductive measures between non-lame cows (score 1), mild lame cows (score 2) and cows with clear lameness (score ≥ 3) were compared.

RESULTS

Independent of parity and herd effects, cows with scores ≥ 3 in the first month of lactation displayed a 6 days longer calving to first service interval (CFSI) (86.2 ± 35.6 vs. 80.2 ± 34.1 days; p = 0.002) and a 16 days longer calving to conception interval (CCI) (119.7 ± 51.4 vs. 103.8 ± 55.5 days; p = 0.048) than non-lame cows. Additionally, the risk for non-conception was significantly higher in cows suffering from lameness in the first month of lactation (odds ratio: 2.1, 95% confidence interval: 1.095, 4.040; p = 0.026). Cows affected by mild lameness in the third month of lactation had a 4 days longer CFSI (84.7 ± 35.6 vs. 80.1 ± 30.5 days; p = 0.026) and a 18 days longer CCI (120.1 ± 55.4 vs. 102.3 ± 47.6 days; p = 0.016) than non-lame cows, while the CSFI in distinct lame cows was extended by 7 days compared to non-lame cows (87.2 ± 34.9 vs. 80.1 ± 30.5 days; p = 0.002). Cows with the score 1 in the first month and score 3 in the third month of lactation showed the longest CSFI (94.3 ± 33.9 vs. 76.5 ± 16.0 days in non-lame cows; p = 0.046).

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This study suggests that both distinct and mild lameness in early lactation lead to a decline in reproduction in dairy herds. A regular determination of the lameness prevalence in dairy herds and optimizing claw health management, including early treatment of lame cows, will enhance animal welfare and reproduction efficiency.

The effects of building design on hazard of first service in Norwegian dairy cows

Reproductive inefficiency is one of the major production and economic constraints on modern dairy farms. The environment affects onset of ovarian activity in a cow postcalving and influences estrus behavior, which in turn affects a stockperson's ability to inseminate her at the correct time. This study used survival analysis to investigate effects of building design and animal factors on the postpartum hazard of first service (HFS) in freestall-housed Norwegian Red cows. The study was performed on 232 Norwegian dairy farms between 2004 and 2007. Data were obtained through on farm measurements and by accessing the Norwegian Dairy Herd Recording System. The final data set contained data on 38,436 calvings and 27,127 services. Univariate Cox proportional hazard analyses showed that herd size and milk yield were positively associated with HFS. Total free accessible area and free accessible area available per cow year were positively associated with the HFS, as was the number of freestalls available per cow. Cows housed on slatted floors had a lower HFS than those housed on solid floors. Conversely, cows housed on rubber floors had a higher HFS than cows on concrete floors. Dead-ending alleyways reduced the hazard of AI after calving. A multivariable Cox proportional hazards model, accounting for herd management by including a frailty term for herd, showed relationships between hazard of postpartum service and explanatory variables. Animals in herds with more than 50 cows had a higher HFS [hazard ratio (HR)=3.0] compared with those in smaller herds. The HFS was also higher (HR=4.3) if more than 8.8 m(2) of space was available per cow year compared with herds in which animals had less space. The HFS after calving increased with parity (parity 2 HR=0.5, parity ≥3 HR=1.7), and was reduced if a lactation began with dystocia (HR=0.82) or was a breed other than Norwegian Red (HR=0.2). The frailty term, herd, was large and highly significant indicating a significant proportion of the variation resides at herd level. The hazard of first insemination decreased with time for all predictive variables, except dystocia. This study shows that providing adequate environmental conditions for estrus behavior is imperative for reproductive efficiency and after herd management factors and time from calving have been accounted for. Thus, optimizing building design for reproductive efficiency is of significant importance when constructing new cattle housing.

First-lactation performance in cows affected by digital dermatitis during the rearing period

The long-term effects of prepartum digital dermatitis (DD) on first-lactation performance were evaluated in a cohort of 719 pregnant heifers. All heifers were followed for a period of 6 mo until calving and classified on the basis of the number of DD events diagnosed during this period as type I, type II, or type III (no DD, one DD event, and multiple DD events, respectively). Health during the initial 60d in milk (DIM), reproductive and hoof health outcomes, and milk production were compared between the 3 heifer type groups. All logistic and linear models were adjusted for age, height, and girth circumference at enrollment, and the type of trace mineral supplementation during the prepartum period. Overall, cows experiencing DD during the rearing period showed worse production and health outcomes compared with healthy heifers during the first lactation. The percentages of assisted calvings, stillbirths, culled before 60 DIM, and diseased cows during the fresh period were numerically higher in type III cows compared with type I cows. However, none of these differences were statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. Significantly lower conception at first service [odds ratio (OR)=0.55, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 0.33, 0.89] and increased number of days open (mean=24d, 95% CI: 5.2, 43) were observed in type III cows compared with type I cows. In relation to hoof health, a significantly increased risk of DD during the first lactation was found in type II and III cows (OR=5.16, 95% CI: 3.23, 8.29; and OR=12.5, 95% CI: 7.52, 21.1, respectively), as well as earlier occurrence of DD following calving (OR=59d, 95% CI=20, 96, and OR=74d, 95% CI: 37, 109). Compared with type I cows, statistically significant milk production losses during the initial 305 DIM of 199 and 335kg were estimated in type II and III cows, respectively. This difference was due to a greater rate of production decline (less persistence) after peak yield. No differences in monthly fat and protein percentages or somatic cell counts were observed between the heifer types. Given the long-term effects of DD on health, reproduction, and production, one of the priorities during the rearing period of dairy heifers should be efficient DD prevention and control programs. Such intensive intervention programs based on active long-term DD surveillance, mitigation of risk factors, and prompt treatment are expected to increase overall animal well-being and farm profitability by minimizing the effect of DD during the first lactation.

Foot and leg conformation traits have a small effect on genomic predictions of claw disorders in Norwegian Red cows

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the predictive correlation of genomic breeding values (GEBV) for claw disorders increased by including genetically correlated traits as additional information in the analyses. Predictive correlations of GEBV for claw disorders were calculated based on claw disorders only and by analyzing claw disorders together with genetically correlated foot and leg conformation traits. The claw disorders analyzed were corkscrew claw (CSC); infectious claw disorder, including dermatitis, heel horn erosion, and interdigital phlegmon; and laminitis-related claw disorder, including sole ulcer, white line disorder, and hemorrhage of sole and white line. The foot and leg conformation traits included were hoof quality, foot angle, rear leg rear view new, and rear leg rear view old. The data consisted of 183,728 daughters with claw health records and 421,319 daughters with foot and leg conformation scores. A 25K/54K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data set containing 48,249 SNP was available for the analyses. The number of genotyped sires with daughter information in the analyses was 1,093 including claw disorders and 3,111 including claw disorders and foot and leg conformation traits. Predictive correlations of GEBV for CSC, infectious claw disorder, and laminitis-related claw disorder were calculated from a 10-fold cross-validation and from an additional validation set including the youngest sires. Only sires having daughters with claw health records were in the validation sets, thus increasing the reference population when adding foot and leg conformation traits. The results showed marginal improvement in the predictive correlation of GEBV for CSC when including hoof quality and foot angle, both in 10-fold cross-validation (from 0.35 to 0.37) and in the validation including the youngest sires (from 0.38 to 0.49). For infectious claw disorder and laminitis-related claw disorder, including foot and leg conformation traits had no effect on the predictive correlation of GEBV. Claw disorders are novel traits with a limited amount of historical data and, therefore, a small reference population. Increasing the reference population by including sires with daughter information on foot and leg conformation traits had small effect on the predictive correlation of GEBV. However, the small increase in predictive correlation of GEBV for CSC shows a possible gain when including moderate to high genetically correlated traits.

Area of hock hair loss in dairy cows: risk factors and correlation with a categorical scale

Data from 3691 dairy cows from 76 farms were used to investigate the risk factors associated with the area of hair loss over the lateral aspect of the hock and the correlation between the area of hair loss (as calculated using a hock map) and hock lesion scores determined using a pre-existing categorical scale. Six factors were associated with a greater area of hair loss, including cows with locomotion score 3, a cleanliness score (10/28 to 18/28), high daily milk yield (25.1-58.1 kg), poor body condition score (1-1.5), duration of winter housing (≥41 days) and some combinations of cubicle base and bedding materials. Compared with cows housed in cubicles with a concrete base and whole straw or rape straw bedding, cows housed in cubicles with concrete bases with sand or chopped straw bedding had smaller areas of hair loss and cows housed on a mattress base with whole straw or rape straw bedding had larger areas of hair loss. Area of hair loss, as measured on hock maps, was not significantly different between cows with score 1 (median 23.6 cm(2)) and score 2 (median 20.3 cm(2)) on the categorical scale for hock lesions. This suggests that the categorical scale was not reflecting the extent of hair loss and that hock maps are a good alternative for studying the dynamics of hock lesions over time.

Using simulation to interpret a discrete time survival model in a complex biological system: fertility and lameness in dairy cows

The ever-growing volume of data routinely collected and stored in everyday life presents researchers with a number of opportunities to gain insight and make predictions. This study aimed to demonstrate the usefulness in a specific clinical context of a simulation-based technique called probabilistic sensitivity analysis (PSA) in interpreting the results of a discrete time survival model based on a large dataset of routinely collected dairy herd management data. Data from 12,515 dairy cows (from 39 herds) were used to construct a multilevel discrete time survival model in which the outcome was the probability of a cow becoming pregnant during a given two day period of risk, and presence or absence of a recorded lameness event during various time frames relative to the risk period amongst the potential explanatory variables. A separate simulation model was then constructed to evaluate the wider clinical implications of the model results (i.e. the potential for a herd's incidence rate of lameness to influence its overall reproductive performance) using PSA. Although the discrete time survival analysis revealed some relatively large associations between lameness events and risk of pregnancy (for example, occurrence of a lameness case within 14 days of a risk period was associated with a 25% reduction in the risk of the cow becoming pregnant during that risk period), PSA revealed that, when viewed in the context of a realistic clinical situation, a herd's lameness incidence rate is highly unlikely to influence its overall reproductive performance to a meaningful extent in the vast majority of situations. Construction of a simulation model within a PSA framework proved to be a very useful additional step to aid contextualisation of the results from a discrete time survival model, especially where the research is designed to guide on-farm management decisions at population (i.e. herd) rather than individual level.

Study of progesterone and cortisol concentrations in the Italian Friesian claw

The present research was conducted to study progesterone and cortisol concentrations in the claw of cattle and to verify whether the cattle claw could be considered an efficient matrix to provide retrospective information regarding progesterone and cortisol concentrations related to pregnancy and peripartum periods. These 2 steroids are involved in hoof growth. The study was performed on 32 calves and 24 pregnant milking cows of the Holstein breed, which were clinically healthy and lacking any claw disorders. Samples of at least 0.5cm in thickness were taken from the sole. Progesterone and cortisol concentrations were determined by RIA. The cortisol concentration in the horny shoe of calves from 0 to 30 d of age was significantly higher than the concentration at 31 to 60 and 61 to 120 d of age. Conversely, the progesterone concentration showed no statistically significant difference in relation to age. The horn progesterone concentrations recorded in the milking dairy cows at 7 mo of pregnancy showed high variability in the horizontal sections of the sole (the individual coefficient of variation ranged between 0.09 and 1.11). In 6 cows, genuine extreme values (genuine outliers) of the progesterone level were found. Moreover, significant differences existed among the progesterone concentrations of the sole's transverse sections. We detected a significant positive correlation between the weight of the horn samples after freeze-drying and their weight after hydration. The cortisol and progesterone levels in soaked horn samples were found to be significantly lower than in the same dry samples. These results show that cortisol and progesterone can be measured in the cattle claw horn. The claws of mature dairy cows could not be used as a matrix to provide a retrospective measure of cumulative hormone secretion, whereas the analysis of the calves' claw horns showed retrospective hormonal information similar to hair samples.

Water footbath, automatic flushing, and disinfection to improve the health of bovine feet

Disinfecting footbaths are used to treat and prevent interdigital dermatitis (ID) and heel horn erosion (HHE). However, many disinfectants are disadvantageous for the environment and, as an alternative, washing of the feet has been introduced. Our aim was to investigate the effect of water footbaths (trial 1), footbaths with CuSO4 (trial 2), automatic water flushing (trial 3), and water flushing followed by disinfection with a glutaraldehyde-based compound (trial 4) in 4 randomized controlled clinical trials performed in a freestall dairy herd of approximately 45 Norwegian Red cows. At trimming before and after each trial, hind foot diseases, hardness of the claw horn (in D-units), locomotion, and cleanliness of the claws were recorded. Before each trial, the cows were divided in comparable study and control groups, based on prevalence of ID and HHE, parity, and days in milk. Using a transponder-regulated gate, the study groups were led through a footbath (trials 1 and 2) or an automatic washer (trials 3 and 4), whereas the control groups were left untreated. Each trial lasted 3 mo and the curative effect in diseased cows and the preventive effect in cows with healthy feet on ID, HHE, and ID + HHE were analyzed. In trial 2, a preventive effect of CuSO4 on HHE compared with the untreated cows was observed. During trial 1, 100% (11/11) of the treated cows with ID got better and 22% (2/9) without ID became diseased, whereas 92% (11/12) of the treated cows with ID + HHE got better and 38% (3/8) without ID + HHE became diseased. During trial 2, 69% (9/13) of the treated cows with ID got better and 11% (1/9) without ID became diseased. During trial 4, 19% (3/16) of the untreated cows with ID + HHE got better and 71% (5/7) without ID + HHE became diseased. In trial 3, no significant effects on ID, HHE, or ID + HHE were revealed. In trial 2 (CuSO4), the treated cows' claw horn was harder after the trial compared with the controls (D-unit difference: 13.25). In trial 3 (stationary water flushing) the treated cows' claw horn was softer after the trial when compared with the controls (D-unit difference: -15.66). The CuSO4 footbaths were useful to prevent HHE and indicate that automatic stationary flushing with only water had no beneficial effect on ID or HHE. The claw horn of cows walking through CuSO4 became harder and the claw horn of cows that had their hind feet flushed with water became softer compared with the controls.

Data quality in the Norwegian dairy herd recording system: agreement between the national database and disease recording on farm

The majority of herds in Norway participate in the national dairy herd recording system. For disease events, this involves transferring information registered on farm, using individual cow health cards (CHC), to the central cattle database (CCD). Before using data from such a database, validation with an aim of describing data quality should be performed, but is rarely done. In this study, diagnostic events from CHC and CCD from 74 dairy herds were compared. Events in 2008 from female cattle with minimum age of 1 yr were included (n=1,738). Discrepancies between the 2 data sources and assessment of data quality were evaluated using agreement between events on CHC and in CCD, calculating completeness and correctness for the CCD, and using a multivariable regression model for agreement (1/0). The agreement evaluation described the concordance between the 2 data sources, whereas the calculations of completeness and correctness depended on a reference data source assumed to be more reliable. Completeness of the CCD was defined as the proportion of diagnostic events on the CHC that was recorded therein. Correctness was defined as the proportion of the CCD events that was also recorded on the CHC, and with the same date and diagnostic code. The agreement was up to 87.5%, the majority of disagreement being caused by unreported events on the CHC (between 10 and 12% of all events). Completeness of the CCD was regarded as high, between 0.87 and 0.88, and correctness excellent, between 0.97 and 0.98. The multivariable regression model found 4 factors that increased the odds for diagnostic events being in agreement between CHC and CCD. These were the events occurring during the 305-d lactation period; the herd size being 75 cows or less; the event occurring during the spring, summer, or winter rather than autumn; and lastly, the diagnostic code for the disease event being preprinted on the CHC, involving a simple check mark as opposed to writing a 3-digit code. The model found a high degree of clustering within herd. In conclusion, disease data in the Norwegian national database for dairy cows are valid to use for epidemiologic research, having in particular an excellent correctness, but it is of concern that at least 10% of data are missing. The proportion of unreported data should be taken into consideration whenever data from this database are used. Reasons for discrepancies found are important to be aware of in any work aiming to improve data transfer from farm to central databases.

Diversity in the magnitude of hind limb unloading occurs with similar forms of lameness in dairy cows

The objective of the study was to evaluate the relationship of veterinary clinical assessments of lameness to probability estimates of lameness predicted from vertical kinetic measures. We hypothesized that algorithm-derived probability estimates of lameness would accurately reflect vertical measures in lame limbs even though vertical changes may not inevitably occur in all lameness. Kinetic data were collected from sound (n=179) and unilaterally lame (n=167) dairy cattle with a 1-dimensional, parallel force plate system that registered vertical ground reaction force signatures of all four limbs as cows freely exited the milking parlour. Locomotion was scored for each hind limb using a 1-5 locomotion score system (1=sound, 5=severely lame). Pain response in the interdigital space was quantified with an algometer and pain response in the claw was quantified with a hoof tester fitted with a pressure gage. Lesions were assigned severity scores (1=minimal pathology to 5=severe pathology). Lameness diminished the magnitude of peak ground reaction forces, average ground reaction forces, Fourier transformed ground reaction forces, stance times and vertical impulses in the lame limbs of unilaterally lame cows. The only effect of lameness on the opposite sound limb was increased magnitude of stance times and vertical impulses in unilaterally lame cows. Symmetry measures of the peak ground reaction forces, average ground reaction forces, Fourier transformed ground reaction forces, stance times and vertical impulses between the left and right hind limbs were also affected in unilateral lameness. Paradoxically, limbs with clinically similar lesion and locomotion scores and pain responses were associated with a broad range of load-transfer off the limb. Substantial unloading and changes in the vertical limb variables occurred in some lameness while minimal unloading and changes in vertical limb variables occurred in other lameness. Corresponding probability estimates of lameness accurately reflected changes in the vertical parameters of limbs and generated low probability estimates of lameness when minimal unloading occurred. Failure to transfer load off limbs with pain reactions, locomotion abnormalities and lesions explained much of the limited sensitivity in lameness detection with vertical limb variables.

Relationship between somatic cell count and milk yield in different stages of lactation

The association between somatic cell count (SCC) and daily milk yield in different stages of lactation was investigated in cows free of clinical mastitis (CM). Data were recorded between 1989 and 2004 in a research herd, and consisted of weekly test-day (TD) records from 1,155 lactations of Swedish Holstein and Swedish Red cows. The main data set (data set A) containing 36,117 records excluded TD affected by CM. In this data set, the geometric mean SCC was 55,000 and 95,000 cells/mL in primiparous and multiparous cows, respectively. A subset of data set A (data set B), containing 27,753 records excluding all TD sampled in lactations affected by CM, was created to investigate the effect of subclinical mastitis (SCM) in lactations free of CM. Daily milk yields were analyzed using a mixed linear model with lactation stage; linear, quadratic and cubic regressions of log(2)-transformed and centered SCC nested within lactation stage; weeks in lactation; TD season; parity; breed; pregnancy status; year-season of calving; calving, reproductive, metabolic and claw disorders; and housing system as fixed effects. A random regression was included to further improve the modeling of the lactation curve. Primiparous and multiparous cows were analyzed separately. The magnitude of daily milk loss associated with increased SCC depended on stage of lactation and parity, and was most extensive in late lactation irrespective of parity. In data set A, daily milk loss at an SCC of 500,000 cells/mL ranged from 0.7 to 2.0 kg (3 to 9%) in primiparous cows, depending on stage of lactation. In multiparous cows, corresponding loss was 1.1 to 3.7 kg (4 to 18%). Regression coefficients of primiparous cows estimated from data set B were consistent with those obtained from data set A, whereas data set B generated more negative regression coefficients of multiparous cows suggesting a higher milk loss associated with increased SCC in lactations in which the cow did not develop CM. The 305-d milk loss in the average lactation affected with SCM was 155 kg of milk (2%) in primiparous cows and 445 kg of milk (5%) in multiparous cows. It was concluded that multiparous cows in late lactation can be expected to be responsible for the majority of the herd-level production loss caused by SCM, and that preventive measures need to focus on reducing the incidence of SCM in such cows.