“Imagine your neighbor mows the lawn”: a pilot study of psychological sequelae due to awake craniotomy

Hypnosis-Assisted Awake Craniotomy for Eloquent Brain Tumors: Advantages and Pitfalls

BACKGROUND

Awake craniotomy (AC) is recommended for the resection of tumors in eloquent areas. It is traditionally performed under monitored anesthesia care (MAC), which relies on hypnotics and opioids. Hypnosis-assisted AC (HAAC) is an emerging technique that aims to provide psychological support while reducing the need for pharmacological sedation and analgesia. We aimed to compare the characteristics and outcomes of patients who underwent AC under HAAC or MAC.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed the clinical, anesthetic, surgical, and neuropsychological data of patients who underwent awake surgical resection of eloquent brain tumors under HAAC or MAC. We used Mann-Whitney U tests, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, and repeated-measures analyses of variance to identify statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level.

RESULTS

A total of 22 patients were analyzed, 14 in the HAAC group and 8 in the MAC group. Demographic, radiological, and surgical characteristics as well as postoperative outcomes were similar. Patients in the HAAC group received less remifentanil (p = 0.047) and propofol (p = 0.002), but more dexmedetomidine (p = 0.025). None of them received ketamine as a rescue analgesic. Although patients in the HAAC group experienced higher levels of perioperative pain (p < 0.05), they reported decreasing stress levels (p = 0.04) and greater levels of satisfaction (p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

HAAC is a safe alternative to MAC as it reduces perioperative stress and increases overall satisfaction. Further research is necessary to assess whether hypnosis is clinically beneficial.

What helps patients to prepare for and cope during awake craniotomy? A prospective qualitative study

There is growing interest in awake craniotomies, but some clinicians are concerned that such procedures are poorly tolerated by patients. Therefore, we conducted a study to assess this phenomenon. In this prospective qualitative study, 68 patients who qualified for awake craniotomy were asked to complete the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)-two days before the surgery and visual analogue scales (VAS) for pain and stress, two days before the surgery and again about two days after. In addition, after their surgery, they took part in a structured interview about what helped them prepare for and cope with the surgery. Most patients tolerated the awake surgery well, scoring low on stress and pain scales. They reported a lower level of stress during the surgery (when questioned afterwards) than before it. Intensity of stress before the surgery correlated negatively with age, positively with HADS anxiety score and positively with stress subsequently experienced during surgery. The level of stress during surgery was associated with stress experienced before the surgery, pain and HADS anxiety and depression scores. Severity of pain during the surgery was positively correlated with stress during surgery and HADS depression and anxiety scores before the surgery. There was no correlation between stress, pain, anxiety and depression and the location of the lesion. Patients have a high tolerance for awake craniotomy. Various factors have an impact on how well patients cope with the operation. Extensive preoperative preparation should be considered a key part of the procedure.

Cognitive and psychiatric outcomes in the GALAXY trial: effect of anaesthesia in deep brain stimulation

BACKGROUND

This study aims: (1) To compare cognitive and psychiatric outcomes after bilateral awake versus asleep subthalamic nucleus (STN) deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery for Parkinson's disease (PD). (2) To explore the occurrence of psychiatric diagnoses, cognitive impairment and quality of life after surgery in our whole sample. (3) To validate whether we can predict postoperative cognitive decline.

METHODS

110 patients with PD were randomised to receive awake (n=56) or asleep (n=54) STN DBS surgery. At baseline and 6-month follow-up, all patients underwent standardised assessments testing several cognitive domains, psychiatric symptoms and quality of life.

RESULTS

There were no differences on neuropsychological composite scores and psychiatric symptoms between the groups, but we found small differences on individual tests and cognitive domains. The asleep group performed better on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test delayed memory test (f=4.2, p=0.04), while the awake group improved on the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test delayed memory test. (f=4.4, p=0.04). The Stroop III score was worse for the awake group (f=5.5, p=0.02). Worse scores were present for Stroop I (Stroop word card) (f=6.3, p=0.01), Stroop II (Stroop color card) (f=46.4, p<0.001), Stroop III (Stroop color-word card) (f=10.8, p=0.001) and Trailmaking B/A (f=4.5, p=0.04). Improvements were seen on quality of life: Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire-39 (f=24.8, p<0.001), and psychiatric scales: Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (f=6.2, p=0.01), and Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (f=5.5, p=0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the choice between awake and asleep STN DBS does not affect cognitive, mood and behavioural adverse effects, despite a minor difference in memory. STN DBS has a beneficial effect on quality of life, mood and anxiety symptoms.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NTR5809.

Patient perception and satisfaction in awake burr hole trepanation under local anesthesia for evacuation of chronic subdural hematoma

Evacuation of chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) will be one of the most common neurosurgical procedures in the future in the increasingly aging societies. Performing cranial surgery on awake patients may place a psychological burden on them. Aim of this study was to evaluate the psychological distress of patients during awake CSDH relief. Patients with awake evacuation of CSDH via burr hole trepanation were included in our monocentric prospective study. Patient perception and satisfaction were measured using standardized surveys 3-5 days and 6 months after surgery. Among other questionnaires, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression and the Impact of Event Scale, were used to quantify patients' stress. A total of 50 patients (mean age 72.9 years (range 51 - 92)) were included. During surgery, 28 patients reported pain (mean 4.1 (SD 3.3)). Postoperatively, 26 patients experienced pain (mean 2.7 (SD 2.6)). Patients' satisfaction with intraoperative communication was reported with a mean of 8.3 (SD 2.1). There was a significant negative correlation between intraoperatively perceived pain and satisfaction with intraoperative communication (p = 0.023). Good intraoperative communication during evacuation of CSDH in awake patients is associated with positive patient perception and correlates with pain reduction.

Awake craniotomy does not lead to increased psychological complaints

BACKGROUND

Patients with brain tumours are increasingly treated by using the awake craniotomy technique. Some patients may experience anxiety when subjected to brain surgery while being fully conscious. However, there has been only limited research into the extent to which such surgeries actually result in anxiety or other psychological complaints. Previous research suggests that undergoing awake craniotomy surgery does not lead to psychological complaints, and that post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD) are uncommon following this type of surgery. It must be noted, however, that many of these studies used small random samples.

METHOD

In the current study, 62 adult patients completed questionnaires to identify the degree to which they experienced anxiety, depressive and post-traumatic stress complaints following awake craniotomy using an awake-awake-awake procedure. All patients were cognitively monitored and received coaching by a clinical neuropsychologist during the surgery.

RESULTS

In our sample, 21% of the patients reported pre-operative anxiety. Four weeks after surgery, 19% of the patients reported such complaints, and 24% of the patients reported anxiety complaints after 3 months. Depressive complaints were present in 17% (pre-operative), 15% (4 weeks post-operative) and 24% (3 months post-operative) of the patients. Although there were some intra-individual changes (improvement or deterioration) in the psychological complaints over time, on group-level postoperative levels of psychological complaints were not increased relative to the preoperative level of complaints. The severity of post-operative PTSD-related complaints were rarely suggestive of a PTSD. Moreover, these complaints were seldom attributed to the surgery itself, but appeared to be more related to the discovery of the tumour and the postoperative neuropathological diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the present study do not indicate that undergoing awake craniotomy is associated with increased psychological complaints. Nevertheless, psychological complaints may well exist as a result of other factors. Consequently, monitoring the patient's mental wellbeing and offering psychological support where necessary remain important.

Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Associated With Awake Craniotomy: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Awake craniotomy (AC) enables real-time monitoring of cortical and subcortical functions when lesions are in eloquent brain areas. AC patients are exposed to various preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative stressors, which might affect their mental health.

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a systematic review to better understand stress, anxiety, and depression in AC patients.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched from January 1, 2000, to April 20, 2022, in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guideline.

RESULTS

Four hundred forty-seven records were identified that fit our inclusion and exclusion criteria for screening. Overall, 24 articles consisting of 1450 patients from 13 countries were included. Sixteen studies (66.7%) were prospective, whereas 8 articles (33.3%) were retrospective. Studies evaluated stress, anxiety, and depression during different phases of AC. Twenty-two studies (91.7%) were conducted on adults, and 2 studies were on pediatrics (8.3 %). Glioma was the most common AC treatment with 615 patients (42.4%). Awake-awake-awake and asleep-awake-asleep were the most common protocols, each used in 4 studies, respectively (16.7%). Anxiety was the most common psychological outcome evaluated in 19 studies (79.2%). The visual analog scale and self-developed questionnaire by the authors (each n = 5, 20.8%) were the most frequently tools used. Twenty-three studies (95.8%) concluded that AC does not increase stress, anxiety, and/or depression in AC patients. One study (4.2%) identified younger age associated with panic attack.

CONCLUSION

In experienced hands, AC does not cause an increase in stress, anxiety, and depression; however, the psychiatric impact of AC should not be underestimated.

Awake craniotomy for brain tumor resection: Patient experience and acceptance in an Asian population

INTRODUCTION

Awake craniotomy is well-established for resection of brain tumor in the eloquent areas. Previous studies from Western countries have reported good level of patient tolerance and acceptance. However, its acceptability in non-Western populations, with different ethnic, social, cultural, religious, and linguistic backgrounds, has not been studied systematically. This study aims to evaluate the experience of patients from an Asian population who underwent awake craniotomy for tumor resection.

METHODS

Data on patient experience were collected by interviewing patients using a structured questionnaire at follow-up appointment. Data on patient demographics and diagnosis were collected from medical records.

RESULTS

Eighteen patients (age 16-68 years) who underwent 20 awake craniotomies were recruited. Preoperatively, all (100%) patients understood the indication for awake craniotomy. Almost all felt fully counseled by the neurosurgeon (90%), anesthetist (100%), and neuropsychologist (95%). Ninety-five percent reported their family to be supportive of awake craniotomy. Seventy-five percent felt adequately prepared on operation day. Intraoperatively, most patients did not experience pain/discomfort (55%) or anxiety (65%). Nearly all found intraoperative motor and language testing to be easy (100% and 90%, respectively). Postoperatively, 100% were satisfied with their care. One hundred percent rated their overall experience as good or excellent. Eighty percent were willing to undergo awake craniotomy again if indicated.

CONCLUSION

Awake craniotomy is well-accepted in an Asian population. All patients had good-to-excellent overall experience, with most willing to undergo awake craniotomy again. Our findings underscore the generalizability of awake craniotomy across different socio-cultural backgrounds and support its utilization in countries with a significant Asian population.

Wide Dissection Trans-Sulcal Approach for Resection of Deep Intra-Axial Lesions in Eloquent Brain Areas

Introduction: Resection of intra-axial tumors (IaT) in eloquent brain regions risks major postoperative neurological deficits. Awake craniotomy is often used to navigate these areas; however, some patients are ineligible for awake procedures. The trans-sulcal approach (TScal) was introduced to reduce parenchymal trauma during tumor resection. We report our experiences utilizing TScal for resection of deep IaT located in eloquent areas. Materials and Methods: This is a single-center retrospective analysis of patients who underwent IaT resection in eloquent areas via TScal from January 2013 to April 2021. Seventeen cases were reviewed, and relevant data was collected. Fluorescence-guided surgery with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and intraoperative ultrasound was performed in some cases. Results: Seventeen patients (10 males, 7 females) averaging 61.2 years-old (range, 21-76) were included in this study. Average length of stay was 4.8 days, and only 2 patients (11.8%) required hospital readmission within 30 days. Gross total resection (GTR) was achieved in 15 patients (88.2%), while subtotal resection occurred in 2 patients (11.8%). Eleven patients (64.7%) reported full resolution of symptoms, 4 patients (23.5%) reported deficit improvement, and 2 patients (11.8%) experienced no change from their preoperative deficits. No patient developed new permanent deficits postoperatively. Discussion: GTR, preoperative deficit reduction, and complications were comparable to awake craniotomy and other TScal studies. Ancillary intraoperative techniques, such as brain mapping, 5-ALA and intraoperative ultrasound, are afforded by TScal to improve resection rates and overall outcomes. Conclusions: TScal can be an option for patients with deep lesions in eloquent areas who are not candidates for awake surgeries.

Patient-reported intraoperative experiences during awake craniotomy for brain tumors: a scoping review

Awake craniotomy (AC) is a neurosurgical procedure that may be used to excise tumors located in eloquent areas of the brain. The techniques and outcomes of AC have been extensively described, but data on patient-reported experiences are not as well known. To determine these, we performed a scoping review of patient-reported intraoperative experiences during awake craniotomy for brain tumor resection. A total of 21 articles describing 534 patients were included in the review. Majority of the studies were performed on adult patients and utilized questionnaires and interviews. Some used additional qualitative methodology such as grounded theory and phenomenology. Most of the evaluation was performed within the first 2 weeks post-operatively. Recollection of the procedure ranged from 0 to 100%, and most memories dealt with the cranial fixation device application, cranial drilling, and intraoperative mapping. All patients reported some degree of pain and discomfort, mainly due to the cranial fixation device and uncomfortable operative position. Most patients were satisfied with their AC experience. They felt that participating in AC gave them a sense of control over their disease and thought that trust in the treatment team and adequate pre-operative preparation were very important. Patients who underwent AC for brain tumor resection had both positive and negative experiences intraoperatively, but overall, majority had a positive perception of and high levels of satisfaction with AC. Successful AC depends not only on a well-conducted intraoperative course, but also on adequate pre-operative information and patient preparation.

The Awake Craniotomy: A Patient’s Experience and A Literature Review

We present a case report and a literature review of the awake craniotomy procedure for mass resection, with emphasis on the historical aspects, anatomical and surgical considerations, and, uniquely, a patient’s experience undergoing this procedure. This procedure is a safe and effective method for lesion resection when working in and around eloquent brain. We have described our process of guiding a patient through an awake craniotomy procedure and detailed the patient's experience in this study. We also conducted a systematic literature review of studies involving awake craniotomy over three years, 2018-2021. Lastly, we compared the methodology used by our institution and the current mostly used methods within the neurosurgical community. Several studies were identified using PubMed and Google Scholar. Awake craniotomy is a safe and effective method of achieving a high rate of resection of lesions located in and around the eloquent cortex with a low degree of postoperative neurological deficit.

The benefits of perioperative music interventions for patients undergoing neurosurgery: a mixed-methods systematic review

BACKGROUND

Several studies have demonstrated music intervention as a safe and inexpensive option for reducing anxiety and pain perioperatively. We performed a systematic review to evaluate its possible benefit in perioperative neurosurgical management.

METHODS

The following databases were searched with no restrictions on publication date: PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, CENTRAL and ClinicalTrials.gov. All studies that quantitatively or qualitatively assessed the effects of any music-based intervention administered within one week of cranial or spinal neurosurgery were eligible. Meta-analysis could not be performed, and quantitative findings were instead summarised narratively. We then synthesised qualitative observations through thematic analysis before conducting an integrative review. PROSPERO registration: CRD42019152626.

RESULTS

Seven studies, of sample sizes ranging from 8 to 60, were included, with the timing, duration, frequency and type of music intervention varying considerably across studies. Quantitative analysis involving five studies showed a significant decrease in anxiety following music intervention in four studies (p < 0.05), and reduced pain perception in three studies (p < 0.05). Mixed evidence was obtained for physiological outcomes including heart rate and blood pressure. Risk of bias was moderate to high. Quantitative findings were generally supported by qualitative analysis which provided additional insight into the factors influencing music intervention's effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

Despite the heterogeneity in study characteristics, this review, which is the first mixed-methods systematic review assessing the effects of perioperative music intervention, not only reveals a potential role for music intervention in neurosurgery, but also highlights the possible importance of considering qualitative evidence in future studies to better characterise its effectiveness.

Compassion, communication, and the perception of control: a mixed methods study to investigate patients' perspectives on clinical practices for alleviating distress and promoting empowerment during awake craniotomies

PURPOSE

To inquire into clinical practices perceived to mitigate patients' intraoperative distress during awake craniotomies.

METHODS

This mixed-methods study involved administration of Amsterdam Preoperative Anxiety and Information Scale and PTSD Checklist prior to the awake craniotomy to evaluate anxiety and information-seeking related to the procedure and symptoms of PTSD. Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale and Depression Module of the Patient Health Questionnaire were administered before and after the procedure to evaluate generalized anxiety and depression. Patient interviews were conducted 2-weeks postprocedure and included a novel set of patient experience scales to assess patients' recollection of intraoperative pain, overall distress, anxiety, distress due to noise, perception of empowerment, perception of being well-prepared, overall satisfaction with anaesthesia management, and overall satisfaction with the procedure. Qualitative data were analysed using conventional content analysis.

RESULTS

Participants (n = 14) had undergone an awake craniotomy for tissue resection due to primary brain tumours or medically-refractory focal epilepsy. Validated self-report questionnaires demonstrated reduced levels of generalized anxiety (pre mean = 8.66; SD = 6.41; post mean= 4.36; SD = 4.24) following the awake craniotomy. Postprocedure interviews revealed very high satisfaction with the awake craniotomy and anaesthesia management and minimal levels of intraoperative pain, anxiety, and distress. The most stressful aspects of the procedure included global recognition of medical diagnosis, anxiety provoked by unfamiliar sights, sounds, and sensations, a perception of a lack of information or misinformation, and long periods of immobility. Important factors in alleviating intraoperative distress included the medical team's ability to promote patient perceptions of control, establish compassionate relationships, address unfamiliar intraoperative sensations, and deliver effective anaesthesia management.

CONCLUSION

Compassion, communication, and patient perception of control were critical in mitigating intraoperative distress. Clinical practice recommendations with implications for all clinicians involved in patient care during awake craniotomies are provided. Use of these interventions and strategies to reduce distress are important to holistic patient care and patient experiences of care and may improve the likelihood of optimal brain mapping procedures to improve clinical outcomes during awake craniotomies.

Role of Clinical Neuropsychologists in Awake-Craniotomy

Background

Awake craniotomy encompasses surgical resection of focal zone of neurological impairment, using intraoperative functional zone mapping. The strength of the procedure is maximum retention of functionally significant zones to ensure better function and quality of life outcomes in patients. A clinical neuropsychologist plays a vital role in profiling the patient’s cognitive and psychosocial functioning as well as increasing the efficacy of functional zone mapping procedures.

Objective

Aim of this article is to summarize the literature on the role of clinical neuropsychologists in awake craniotomy and underscoring the need for establishing standardized operating procedures for neuropsychologists in awake craniotomy highlighting experiential anecdotes from a tertiary care facility.

Materials and Methods

A review of articles that elucidate the role of clinical neuropsychologists was done and summarized to highlight the role of clinical neuropsychologists. An attempt was made to explain the implementation of this role in regular clinical practice at a tertiary care facility.

Results

The role of a clinical neuropsychologist is highly crucial at pre-/during and postawake craniotomy, and has a significant bearing on the overall psychological outcome of the individual. The need for a standardized protocol to unify practice and increase the efficacy of the awake-craniotomy procedure is put forth. Recommendations for future directions in research to increase the scope of neuropsychologists in awake craniotomy have also been made.

[Sensations of patients and their satisfaction during awake craniotomy]

Awake craniotomy (AC) has gained fantastic popularity over the past years. This approach is no longer the destiny of only highly specialized neurosurgical centers. Technical features of AC are completely developed. However, certain aspects of patients' sensations and their satisfaction are still unclear. The review is devoted to these issues. It was shown that AC is positively evaluated by the vast majority of patients. Many patients would choose this technique for redo surgery. However, there are certain important details that can adversely affect satisfaction of patients. Thus, these features should be considered in AC.

Subjective experience, cognitive functioning and trauma level of patients undergoing awake craniotomy due to brain tumor - Preliminary study

BACKUP AND OBJECTIVE

Awake craniotomy (AC) for brain tumors, when the patient is conscious during the operation, allows to reduce the risk of motor disability and aphasia, however, it may be a source of extreme stress. The aim of our study was to examine the patients' subjective experience of the surgery including the level of psychological trauma and cognitive functioning.

METHOD

Eighteen patients operated due to brain tumor were enrolled in this study. The Essener Trauma-Inventory Questionnaire and the Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination (ACE III) were administrated. The patients' experience with awake craniotomy was evaluated with a qualitative descriptive survey.

RESULTS

All patients remembered the intraoperative neuropsychological examination and several sensations like: drilling, cold, head clamp fixation or having eyes covered. In most of the patients the postoperative psychological trauma experience did not reach the clinical level. The ACE III postoperative scores revealed partial cognitive deficits with the lowest scores in memory and word fluency domains. Slight amnestic aphasia was observed postoperatively only in two patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Awake craniotomy for resection of brain tumors is well-tolerated by patients and does not cause significant psychological trauma. Nonetheless, anxiety about the procedure warrants further study and individualized neuropsychological care is needed for the emotional preparation of the patient.

Awake Craniotomy in a Child: Assessment of Eligibility with a Simulated Theatre Experience

Background

Awake craniotomy is a useful surgical approach to identify and preserve eloquent areas during tumour resection, during surgery for arteriovenous malformation resections and for resective epilepsy surgery. With decreasing age, a child's ability to cooperate and mange an awake craniotomy becomes increasingly relevant. Preoperative screening is essential to identify the child who can undergo the procedure safely. Case Description. A 11-year-old female patient presented with a tumour in her right motor cortex, presumed to be a dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour (DNET). We had concerns regarding the feasibility of performing awake surgery in this patient as psychological testing revealed easy distractibility and an inability to follow commands repetitively. We devised a simulated surgical experience to assess her ability to manage such a procedure. During the simulated theatre experience, attempts were made to replicate the actual theatre experience as closely as possible. The patient was dressed in theatre attire and brought into the theatre on a theatre trolley. She was then transferred onto the theatre bed and positioned in the same manner as she would be for the actual surgery. Her head was placed on a horseshoe headrest, and she was made to lie in a semilateral position, as required for the surgery. A blood pressure cuff, pulse oximeter, nasal cannula with oxygen flow, and calf pumps were applied. She was then draped precisely as she would have been for the procedure. Theatre lighting was set as it would be for the surgical case. The application of the monitoring devices, nasal cannula, and draping was meant not only to prepare her for the procedure but to induce a mild degree of stress such that we could assess the child's coping skills and ability to undergo the procedure. The child performed well throughout the simulated run, and surgery was thus offered. An asleep-awake-asleep technique was planned and employed for surgical removal of the tumour. Cortical and subcortical mapping was used to identify the eloquent tissue. Throughout the procedure, the child was cooperative and anxiety free. Follow-up MRI revealed gross total removal of the lesion.

Conclusion

A simulated theatre experience allowed us to accurately determine that this young patient, despite relative contraindications, was indeed eligible for awake surgery. We will continue to use this technique for all our young patients in assessing their eligibility for these procedures.

Awake Craniotomy in a Patient With History of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder-A Clinical Dilemma: A Case Report

A 32-year-old man undergoing awake craniotomy for tumor resection was previously diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)-typically a relative contraindication for awake craniotomy. Preoperative neurocognitive assessment and counseling by a neuroanesthesiologist and neuropsychologist were undertaken to characterize his PTSD, identify triggers, and prepare him for the intraoperative events. Dexmedetomidine and remifentanil were used as intraoperative anxiolytics and analgesics. With an emphasis on open communication, the patient tolerated the awake craniotomy without complications. This case highlights the importance of multidisciplinary approach and meticulous perioperative preparation in successfully managing a patient who might otherwise be contraindicated for awake craniotomy.

Psychological aspects of awake brain surgery in children-interests and risks

Awake brain surgery (ABS) in children remains a subject of controversial debate for the potential psychological limitations that are related to this type of procedure. However, the tolerance and benefits of ABS in adults advocate for increased application of ABS in children. In this study, we report the psychological assessment, evaluation algorithm, and outcome of pediatric patients, who underwent ABS for surgical treatment of lesions in eloquent areas. Psychological selection criteria and the specifications of psychological support are described. A retrospective review and analysis of psychological assessment and psychological outcome of pediatric patients, who underwent ABS between 2005 and 2018 at the Department of pediatric neurosurgery, University of Lyon, France, was performed. Long-term psychological outcomes are reported. ABS was proposed to 18 children aged between 9 and 17 years and their families. After psychological evaluation of the individual patient and their familial surrounding, five boys and 12 girls (n = 17) were accounted eligible for ABS. They underwent asleep-awake-asleep brain surgery with intraoperative testing. In 16 cases, ABS could be performed as planned. Psychological alterations were postoperatively observed in 3 patients, symptoms of a post-traumatic stress disorder in 1 patient. The precise preoperative evaluation of the risk-benefit ratio in children plays a crucial role in anticipating a good psychological outcome. Professional psychological preparation and support of the child and his or her family are the key elements for successful completion of ABS.

Awake brain surgery in children-review of the literature and state-of-the-art

OBJECTIVE

Awake brain surgery (ABS) is poorly reported in children as it is considered having limited indications due to age and neuropsychological aspects interfering with its feasibility and psychological outcome. The aim of this article is to review the current state-of-the-art of ABS in children and to offer an objective summary of the published literature on diversified outcome aspects of pediatric awake procedures.

METHODS

A literature review was performed using the MEDLINE (PubMed) electronic database applying the following MeSH terms to the keyword search within titles and abstracts: "awake brain surgery children," "awake brain surgery pediatric," "awake craniotomy children," "awake craniotomy pediatric," and "awake surgery children." Of the initial 753 results obtained from these keyword searches, a full text screening of 51 publications was performed, ultimately resulting in 18 eligible articles for this review.

RESULTS

A total of 18 full text articles reporting the results of 50 patients were included in the analysis. Sixteen of the 18 studies were retrospective studies, comprising 7 case series, 9 case reports, and 2 reviews. Eleven studies were conducted from anesthesiological (25 patients) and 7 from neurosurgical (25 patients) departments. Most of the patients underwent ABS for supratentorial lesions (26 patients), followed by epilepsy surgery (16 patients) and deep brain stimulation (DBS) (8 patients). The median age was 15 years (range 8-17 years). Persistent deficits occurred in 6 patients, (12%), corresponding to minor motor palsies (4%) and neuropsychological concerns (8%). An awake procedure was aborted in 2 patients (4%) due to cooperation failure and anxiety, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite well-documented beneficial aspects, ABS remains mainly limited to adults. This review confirms a reliable tolerability of ABS in selected children; however, recommendations and guidelines for its standardized implementation in this patient group are pending. Recommendations and guidelines may address diagnostic workup and intra-operative handling besides criteria of eligibility, psychological preparation, and coordinated neuropsychological testing in order to routinely offer ABS to children.

Anxiety, memories and coping in patients undergoing intracranial tumor surgery

OBJECTIVES

The diagnosis and the surgical removal of a brain tumor can have serious impact on the quality of life of a patient. The question rises, whether having more or just less memories of the procedure is better for coping with such an event. Furthermore, for preoperative information of future patients it is important to know how patients process their emotions and memories. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the link between preoperative anxiety, the perioperative experience and the quantity and quality of postoperative memories in patients who underwent intracranial tumor surgery.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This study was a retrospective observational study; all patients who underwent intracranial tumor surgery at the Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam between January 1st 2014 and December 31st 2015 were identified. In May 2016, all patients who were not registered as deceased were sent a questionnaire about their anxieties, perceptions and memories of the perioperative period.

RESULTS

In total 476 patients were included. 272 patients responded, which resulted in a response rate of 57.14%. In the general anesthesia (GA) group there was a significant negative correlation between anxiety in the perioperative period and the quantity and quality of memories. In the awake craniotomy group, there was a significant negative correlation between anxiety after the operation and the quantity of memories.

CONCLUSION

Patients in the GA group who experienced anxiety in the perioperative period had less quantity and quality of memories and less patient satisfaction. Patients in the AC group who experienced anxiety after the operation had only a lower quantity of the memory; there was no correlation with patient satisfaction.

Deep Brain Stimulation Surgery without Sedation

<b><i>Background:</i></b> Sedatives and opioids used during deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery interfere with optimal target localization and add to side effects and risks, and thus should be minimized. <b><i>Objective:</i></b> To retrospectively test the actual need for sedatives and opioids when cranial nerve blocks and specific therapeutic communication are applied. <b><i>Methods:</i></b> In a case series, 64 consecutive patients treated with a strong rapport, constant contact, non-verbal communication and hypnotic suggestions, such as dissociation to a “safe place,” reframing of disturbing noises and self-confirmation, were compared to 22 preceding patients under standard general anaesthesia or conscious sedation. <b><i>Results:</i></b> With introduction of the protocol the need for sedation dropped from 100% in the control group to 5%, and from a mean dose of 444 mg to 40 mg in 3 patients. Remifentanil originally used in 100% of the patients in an average dose of 813 µg was reduced in the study group to 104 µg in 31% of patients. There were no haemodynamic reactions indicative of stress during incision, trepanation, electrode insertion and closure. <b><i>Conclusion:</i></b> With adequate therapeutic communication, patients do not require sedation and no or only low-dose opioid treatment during DBS surgery, leaving patients fully awake and competent during surgery and testing.

Quality and Quantity of Memories in Patients Who Undergo Awake Brain Tumor Resection

BACKGROUND

Awake craniotomy is performed with increasing frequency for brain tumor surgery in eloquent areas; however, little is known about patients' memories of this procedure. Here we retrospectively analyzed the quality and quantity of memories in a series of patients treated following a standardized protocol.

METHODS

We treated 61 consecutive patients within 3 years, 48 of whom were alive when the study was performed. Each of these patients received a questionnaire eliciting information about their perioperative memories and perceptions. The perioperative process was broken down into steps, and for each step the patient was to judge the quantity (nothing-everything) and quality (very negative-very positive) of his or her memories.

RESULTS

Thirty-six of the 48 patients completed the questionnaire (75%). The quantity of memories was quite incomplete, even for intraoperative moments when patients were awake and cooperative. On average, the quality of memories was neutral or positive. A higher quantity of memories was associated with a higher quality of memories. The most commonly reported sources of discomfort were placement of the Mayfield clamp, followed by laying on the operating room table with movement restriction, and irritation by the urinary catheter in situ.

CONCLUSIONS

Awake craniotomy can be performed following our protocol in such a way that it is experienced as (very) comfortable. However, there are moments of discomfort, which can be managed by the team. Extensive preoperative preparation may be considered a crucial part of the procedure. Less amnesia seems to improve patient satisfaction. The results of this study can help guide protocol optimization, expectation management, and information for future patients.

Kurt Goldstein and his nonlocationist thoughts on aphasia-a pioneer of early network theories at the beginning of the twentieth century?

In between Carl Wernicke's locationist aphasia concept from 1874 and Norman Geschwind's new connectionist model of human brain functions in 1965, little notice was taken of the historical debate on aphasia and brain plasticity. Interestingly, Kurt Goldstein made long-forgotten, but highly relevant remarks on the connectionist model and thereby served as an important connecting link between Wernicke and Geschwind. With the original contributions of Goldstein and contemporary authors, we analyzed the historical background of the aphasia debate in the time period between Wernicke and Geschwind, which still influences current aphasia concepts and neurosurgical practice of today.

The patients' view: impact of the extent of resection, intraoperative imaging, and awake surgery on health-related quality of life in high-grade glioma patients-results of a multicenter cross-sectional study

The objective of the present study is to assess the influence of extent of resection (EoR), use of intraoperative imaging, and awake surgery on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in high-grade glioma (HGG) patients in a prospective multicenter study. We analyzed 170 surgeries of patients suffering from a HGG. During the first year after resection, HRQoL was evaluated using the European Organization of Research and Treatment of Cancer Core Questionnaire C30 and Brain Neoplasm 20 questionnaires. We assessed the influence of EoR; awake surgery; and use of 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), intraoperative MRI (iMRI), and their combination on sum scores for function and symptoms as well as several neurological single items. In mixed-model analyses, adjustments for age, Karnofsky performance status (KPS), and eloquent location were performed. In the mixed model, EoR generally did not significantly influence HRQoL (p = 0.10). Yet, patients receiving subtotal resection (STR) vs. patients with biopsy showed significantly better QoL and role and cognitive functions (p = 0.04, p = 0.02, and p < 0.01, respectively). The combination of iMRI and 5-ALA reached the highest EoR (95%) followed by iMRI alone (94%), 5-ALA alone (74%), and no imaging (73%). Thereby, neurological symptoms were lowest and functioning score highest after combined use of iMRI and 5-ALA, without reaching significance (p = 0.59). Despite lower scores in emotional function (59 vs. 46, p = 0.24), no significant impact of awake surgery on HRQoL was found (p = 0.70). In HGG patients, STR compared to biopsy was significantly associated with better HRQoL and fewer neurological symptoms in this series. An escalated use of intraoperative imaging increased EoR with stable or slightly better HRQoL and fewer neurological symptoms. Based on HRQoL, awake surgery was a well-tolerated and safe method in our series.

Awake craniotomy: improving the patient's experience.Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2015;28:511-516. [PMID: 26263121 DOI: 10.1097/ACO.0000000000000231]

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Awake craniotomy patients are exposed to various stressful stimuli while their attention and vigilance is important for the success of the surgery. We describe several recent findings on the perception of awake craniotomy patients and address nonpharmacological perioperative factors that enhance the experience of awake craniotomy patients. These factors could also be applicable to other surgical patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

Proper preoperative counseling gives higher patient satisfaction and should be individually tailored to the patient. Furthermore, there is a substantial proportion of patients who have significant pain or fear during an awake craniotomy procedure. There is a possibility that this could induce post-traumatic stress disorder or related symptoms.

SUMMARY

Preoperative preparation is of utmost importance in awake craniotomy patients, and a solid doctor-patient relationship is an important condition. Nonpharmacological intraoperative management should focus on reduction of fear and pain by adaptation of the environment and careful and well considered communication.

Experiences in surgery of primary malignant brain tumours in the primary sensori-motor cortex practical recommendations and results of a single institution

OBJECTIVE

Tumour resection in the Rolandic region is a challenge. Aim of this study is to review a series of patients malignant glioma surgery in the Rolandic region which was performed by combinations of neuronavigation, sonography, 5-aminolevulinic acid fluorescence guided (5-ALA) surgery and intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring (IOM).

METHODS

29 patients suffering malignant gliomas in the motor cortex (17) and sensory cortex (12) were analyzed with respect to functional outcome and grade of resections.

RESULTS

Improvement of motor function was seen in 41.5% one week after surgery, 41.5% were stable, only 17% deteriorated. After three months patients had an improvement of motor function in 56%, of Karnofsky Score (KPS) 27% and sensory function was improved in 8%. Deterioration of motor function was seen in 16%, in sensory function 4% and in KPS 28% after three months. 25% showed no residual tumour in early post surgical contrast enhanced MRI. 10% had less than 2% residual tumour and 15% had 2-5% residual tumour.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative functional neuroimaging, neuronavigation for planning the surgical approach and resection margins, intraoperative sonography and 5-ALA guided surgery in combination with the application of IOM shows that functional outcome and total to subtotal resection of malignant glioma in the Rolandic region is feasible.

A case of loss of consciousness with contralateral acute subdural haematoma during awake craniotomy

We are reporting the case of a 56-year-old woman who developed loss of consciousness during awake craniotomy. A thin subdural haematoma in the contralateral side of the craniotomy was identified with intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging and subsequently removed. Our case indicates that contralateral acute subdural haematoma could be a cause of deterioration of the conscious level during awake craniotomy.

Patient response to awake craniotomy - a summary overview

BACKGROUND

Awake craniotomy is a valuable procedure since it allows brain mapping and live monitoring of eloquent brain functions. The advantage of minimizing resource utilization is also emphasized by some physicians in North America. Data on how well an awake craniotomy is tolerated by patients and how much stress it creates is available from different studies, but this topic has not consequently been summarized in a review of the available literature. Therefore, it is the purpose of this review to shed more light on the still controversially discussed aspect of an awake craniotomy.

METHODS

We reviewed the available English literature published until December 2013 searching for studies that investigated patients' responses to awake craniotomies.

RESULTS

Twelve studies, published between 1998 and 2013, including 396 patients with awake surgery were identified. Eleven of these 12 studies set the focus on the perioperative time, one study focused on the later postoperative time. The vast majority of patients felt well prepared and overall satisfaction with the procedure was high. In the majority of studies up to 30 % of the patients recalled considerable pain and 10-14 % experienced strong anxiety during the procedure. The majority of patients reported that they would undergo an awake craniotomy again. A post traumatic stress disorder was present neither shortly nor years after surgery. However, a normal human response to such an exceptional situation can for instance be the delayed appearance of unintentional distressing recollections of the event despite the patients' satisfaction concerning the procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

For selected patients, an awake craniotomy presents the best possible way to reduce the risk of surgery related neurological deficits. However, benefits and burdens of this type of procedure should be carefully considered when planning an awake craniotomy and the decision should serve the interests of the patient.