Monitoring of blood parameters following anterior cervical fusion

Current knowledge of vertebral osteomyelitis: a review

PURPOSE

As life expectancy increases worldwide, the elderly population in every country is growing in both the size and proportion. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the microbiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic strategies, and therapeutic approaches to vertebral osteomyelitis, summarizing the latest evidence to guide effective treatment.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted using the Medline and Embase databases to identify relevant studies on vertebral osteomyelitis. The search included the following keywords: "vertebral osteomyelitis," "spinal infection," "discitis," "spondylitis," " spondylodiscitis," and "spinal epidural abscess." Both retrospective and prospective studies, case series, and reviews were considered.

RESULTS

This condition is commonly caused by bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus or gram-negative bacilli, but can also be caused by other pathogens like fungi and parasites. The onset of vertebral osteomyelitis is insidious, with low specificity in clinical manifestations, often making early diagnosis difficult. Delayed or inadequate treatment may lead to sepsis, permanent neurological damage, or even death. Treatment strategies emphasize the importance of identifying the causative pathogen to guide effective antimicrobial therapy. Current consensus does not advocate for empirical antibiotic treatment unless patients exhibit signs of neurological impairment or severe sepsis. Severe cases involving neurological paralysis, spinal instability, or sepsis may require surgical intervention.

CONCLUSION

Vertebral osteomyelitis requires prompt diagnosis and treatment for a good prognosis. Delayed diagnosis and treatment can lead to permanent neurological deficits or death. Identifying the causative organism is crucial for guiding appropriate antimicrobial therapy. In addition to conservative and surgical treatments, local drug delivery systems offer new approaches to managing spinal osteomyelitis.

Pyogenic spondylitis caused by Escherichia coli: A case report and literature review

BACKGROUND

Pyogenic spondylitis is often manifested as atypical low back pain and fever, which makes it easy to be confused with other diseases. Here we report a case of pyogenic spondylitis and describe the diagnosis and treatment based on the related literature.

CASE SUMMARY

The reported case suffered from pyogenic spondylitis caused by Escherichia coli and complicated with bacteremia and psoas abscess. Acute pyelonephritis was initially diagnosed due to atypical symptoms. Symptoms were improved from antibiotic treatment while developing progressive lower limb dysfunction. One month post the admission, the patient underwent anterior lumbar debridement + autogenous iliac bone graft fusion + posterior percutaneous screw-rod internal fixation, and received 6 wk of antibiotic treatment after the operation. Reexamination 4 mo post the operation showed that the patient had no evident pain in the waist, and walked well with no evident dysfunction of lower limbs.

CONCLUSION

Here we describe the application value of several imaging examinations, such as X-ray, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, and certain tests like erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein in the clinical treatment of pyogenic spondylitis. This disease requires early diagnosis and treatment. Sensitive antibiotics should be used in early stages and surgical intervention should be taken if necessary, which may help for a speedy recovery and prevent the occurrence of severe complications.

A Clinical Prediction Tool for MRI in Emergency Department Patients with Spinal Infection

Introduction

Patients with pyogenic spinal Infection (PSI) are often not diagnosed at their initial presentation, and diagnostic delay is associated with increased morbidity and medical-legal risk. We derived a decision tool to estimate the risk of spinal infection and inform magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) decisions.

Methods

We conducted a two-part prospective observational cohort study that collected variables from spine pain patients over a six-year derivation phase. We fit a multivariable regression model with logistic coefficients rounded to the nearest integer and used them for variable weighting in the final risk score. This score, SIRCH (spine infection risk calculation heuristic), uses four clinical variables to predict PSI. We calculated the statistical performance, MRI utilization, and model fit in the derivation phase. In the second phase we used the same protocol but enrolled only confirmed cases of spinal infection to assess the sensitivity of our prediction tool.

Results

In the derivation phase, we evaluated 134 non-PSI and 40 PSI patients; median age in years was 55.5 (interquartile range [IQR] 38–70 and 51.5 (42–59), respectively. We identified four predictors for our risk score: historical risk factors; fever; progressive neurological deficit; and C-reactive protein (CRP) ≥ 50 milligrams per liter (mg/L). At a threshold SIRCH score of ≥ 3, the predictive model’s sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value were, respectively, as follows: 100% (95% confidence interval [CI], 100–100%); 56% (95% CI, 48–64%), and 40% (95% CI, 36–46%). The area under the receiver operator curve was 0.877 (95% CI, 0.829–0.925). The SIRCH score at a threshold of ≥ 3 would prompt significantly fewer MRIs compared to using an elevated CRP (only 99/174 MRIs compared to 144/174 MRIs, P <0.001). In the second phase (49 patient disease-only cohort), the sensitivities of the SIRCH score and CRP use (laboratory standard cut-off 3.5 mg/L) were 92% (95% CI, 84–98%), and 98% (95% CI, 94–100%), respectively.

Conclusion

The SIRCH score provides a sensitive estimate of spinal infection risk and prompts fewer MRIs than elevated CRP (cut-off 3.5 mg/L) or clinician suspicion.

Sensitivity of C-reactive protein cut-off values for pyogenic spinal infection in the emergency department

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to describe the sensitivity of various C-reactive protein (CRP) cut-off values to identify patients requiring magnetic resonance imaging evaluation for pyogenic spinal infection among emergency department (ED) adults presenting with neck or back pain.

METHODS

We prospectively enrolled a convenience series of adults presenting to a community ED with neck or back pain in whom ED providers had concern for pyogenic spinal infection in a derivation cohort from 2004 to 2010 and a validation cohort from 2010 to 2018. The validation cohort included only patients with pyogenic spinal infection. We analysed diagnostic test characteristics of various CRP cut-off values.

RESULTS

We enrolled 232 patients and analysed 201 patients. The median age was 55 years, 43.8% were male, 4.0% had history of intravenous drug use, and 20.9% had recent spinal surgery. In the derivation cohort, 38 (23.9%) of 159 patients had pyogenic spinal infection. Derivation sensitivity and specificity of CRP cut-off values were > 3.5 mg/L (100%, 24.8%), > 10 mg/L (100%, 41.3%), > 30 mg/L (100%, 61.2%), and > 50 mg/L (89.5%, 69.4%). Validation sensitivities of CRP cut-off values were > 3.5 mg/L (97.6%), > 10 mg/L (97.6%), > 30 mg/L (90.4%), and > 50 mg/L (85.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

CRP cut-offs beyond the upper limit of normal had high sensitivity for pyogenic spinal infection in this adult ED population. Elevated CRP cut-off values of 10 mg/L and 30 mg/L require validation in other settings.

Clinical characteristics of pyogenic spondylitis and psoas abscess at a tertiary care hospital: a retrospective cohort study

Background

Psoas abscess and pyogenic spondylitis are intractable diseases that require long-term treatment, but the clinical characteristics and causative organisms have not been fully investigated. Herein, we describe the clinical characteristics of these diseases and evaluate the factors associated with in-hospital mortality and the presence of gram-negative rods as causative microorganisms.

Methods

All patients diagnosed with pyogenic spondylitis or psoas abscesses at a tertiary hospital were included. We retrieved the clinical data (age, sex, outcome, length of hospital stay, disease, bacteria, medication, comorbidities, and treatment status), vital signs (blood pressure, heart rate, and body temperature), and laboratory test results (blood cell count, liver function, renal function, electrolytes, blood sugar, and C-reactive protein) of all patients. The outcomes were in-hospital deaths and positive cultures of gram-negative rods.

Results

We analyzed 126 patients consisting of 69 (55%) men with a population mean age of 72 years. Seventy-two patients had pyogenic spondylitis and 54 had psoas abscesses. Eleven patients (8.3%) died during admission. The causative bacteria were gram-positive cocci in 63 patients (50%) and gram-negative bacteria in 19 patients (15%). The multivariate logistic model showed that blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (odds ratio [OR] 1.04, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.02–1.06) and cardiovascular diseases (OR 7.02, 95% CI 1.55–31.8) were associated with in-hospital mortality. Platelets less than 150,000/μL (OR 3.14, 95% CI 1.02–9.65) and higher aspartic aminotransferase (OR 1.02, 95% CI 1.00–1.03) were associated with gram-negative rods.

Conclusions

Patients with suspected psoas abscesses or pyogenic spondylitis having a high BUN level and a history of cardiovascular diseases have a higher risk of mortality.

The effectiveness of pedicle screw immersion in vancomycin and ceftriaxone solution for the prevention of postoperative spinal infection: A prospective comparative study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of the local application of vancomycin hydrochloride (HCl)-ceftriaxone disodium hemiheptahydrate onto implants before using them to prevent postoperative infection.

METHODS

The study included 239 patients (153 women and 86 men; mean age: 48.23 ± 16.77 years) who had thoracolumbar stabilization with transpedicular screws. All surgeries were performed by the same surgeon. Patients were divided into two groups. In the group 1 (n = 104), implants were bathed in a solution of local prophylactic antibiotics for 5 seconds just before implantation. In the group 2 (n = 135), implants were not bathed before implantation. Local antibiotics used in the study was effective against gram positive bacteria (including methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and gram negative bacteria. The rate of surgical site infection and wound healing time were compared between the groups.

RESULTS

A total of 10 patients (4.1%) had deep wound infection and 20 (8.4%) had superficial infection. The most common bacteria was Staphylococcus aureus. One patient died 21 days after the surgery because of sepsis. The wound healed in a mean of 9.66 ± 2.04 days in patients who had no infection and in 32.33 ± 19.64 days in patients with infection (p < 0.001). The patients in group 1 had significantly less deep infection than the patients in group 2 (p < 0.05). However, there was no statistically significant difference between the groups for superficial infection. Patients with vertebral fracture had significantly lower deep infection rate in group 1. The deep infection rate of group 1 patients with diabetes, with bleeding of more than 2000 mL, transfused with blood transfusions above 3 units and with dural injury was significantly lower than those in the group 2. None of the patients had allergic reactions to the drugs used for local prophylaxis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shown that bathing implants in antibiotics solution was an effective local prophylactic method to prevent deep infections in spinal surgeries with instrumentation.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, Therapeutic study.

Postoperative Changes in Presepsin Level and Values Predictive of Surgical Site Infection After Spinal Surgery: A Single-Center, Prospective Observational Study

STUDY DESIGN

Single-institutional, prospective observational study.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the perioperative kinetics of presepsin (PSEP) in patients undergoing spinal surgery, and to evaluate the possibility of PSEP in the early diagnosis of surgical site infection (SSI).

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Early diagnosis of SSI after spinal surgery is important. Although several biomarkers have been used as early indicators of SSI, the specificity of these markers in SSI diagnosis was not high. PSEP was found as a novel diagnostic marker for bacterial sepsis in 2004. However, its kinetics after spinal surgery and its usefulness in early diagnosis of SSI have never been evaluated.

METHODS

A total of 118 patients who underwent elective spinal surgery were enrolled. PSEP was measured before, immediately after, 1 day after, and 1 week after surgery. In patients without postoperative infection, perioperative kinetics of PSEP were analyzed. PSEP levels in patients with postoperative infection were also recorded separately, and their utility in SSI diagnosis was evaluated.

RESULTS

In the 115 patients without postoperative infection, the median PSEP value was 126, 171, 194, and 147 pg/mL before, immediately after, 1 day after, and 1 week after surgery, respectively. Compared with the preoperative value, PSEP was significantly higher immediately after surgery and the next day, and return to the preoperative level 1 week after surgery. The estimated reference value for 95 percentile in patients without postoperative infection was 297 pg/mL 1 week after surgery. In three patients with postoperative infection, higher levels (>300 pg/mL) were observed 1 week after surgery.

CONCLUSION

In patients after spinal surgery without infectious complications, blood levels of PSEP may immediately increase and return to preoperative levels 1 week after surgery. The PSEP value of 300 pg/mL 1 week after surgery might be used as a novel indicator for suspected SSI.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4.

Pyogenic spondylitis

Pyogenic spondylitis is a neurological and life threatening condition. It encompasses a broad range of clinical entities, including pyogenic spondylodiscitis, septic discitis, vertebral osteomyelitis, and epidural abscess. The incidence though low appears to be on the rise. The diagnosis is based on clinical, radiological, blood and tissue cultures and histopathological findings. Most of the cases can be treated non-operatively. Surgical treatment is required in 10–20% of patients. Anterior decompression, debridement and fusion are generally recommended and instrumentation is acceptable after good surgical debridement with postoperative antibiotic cover.

Anterior interbody grafting and instrumentation for advanced spondylodiscitis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the surgical outcomes of ventral interbody grafting and anterior or posterior spinal instrumentation for the treatment of advanced spondylodiscitis in patients who had failed medical management.

METHODS

A total of 28 patients were evaluated for associated medical illness, detected pathogen, level of involved spine, and perioperative complications. Radiological evaluation including the rate of bony union, segmental Cobb angle, graft- and instrumentation-related complications, and clinical outcomes by mean Frankel scale and VAS score were performed.

RESULTS

There are 14 pyogenic spondylodiscitis, 6 postoperative spondylodiscitis, and 8 tuberculous spondylodiscitis. There were 21 males and 7 females. Mean age was 51 years, with a range from 18 to 77. Mean follow-up period was 10.9 months. Associated medical illnesses were 6 diabetes, 3 pulmonary tuberculosis, and 4 chronic liver diseases. Staphylococcus was the most common pathogen isolated (25%), and Mycobacterium tuberculosis was found in 18% of the patients. Operative approaches, either anterior or posterior spinal instrumentation, were done simultaneously or delayed after anterior aggressive debridement, neural decompression, and structural interbody bone grafting. All patients with neurological deficits improved after operation, except only one who died from aggravation as military tuberculosis. Mean Frankel scale was changed from 3.78+/-0.78 preoperatively to 4.78+/-0.35 at final follow up and mean VAS score was improved from 7.43+/-0.54 to 2.07+/-1.12. Solid bone fusion was obtained in all patients except only one patient who died. There was no need for prolongation of duration of antibiotics and no evidence of secondary infection owing to spinal instrumentations.

CONCLUSION

According to these results, debridement and anterior column reconstruction with ventral interbody grafting and instrumentation is effective and safe in patients who had failed medical management and neurological deficits in advanced spondylodiscitis.

Serum C-reactive protein levels correlate with clinical response in patients treated with antibiotics for wound infections after spinal surgery

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) have been used to diagnose postoperative infections after spinal surgery. However, it has not been demonstrated if resolution of the signs and symptoms of postoperative spinal wound infections in patients who are being treated with intravenous antibiotics correlates with these markers.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to determine if improvement of the signs and symptoms of postoperative wound infection after spinal surgery correlates with a decrease in serum CRP and ESR while intravenous antibiotics are administered.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review.

PATIENT SAMPLE

The study consisted of 21 patients (mean age 63.8 years; 13 female, 8 male) with postoperative wound infections after spinal surgery. They were studied for a minimum of 20 weeks.

OUTCOME MEASURES

CRP and ESR were measured at the time of diagnosis and at serial time-points.

METHODS

All patients received intravenous antibiotic therapy for 6-8 weeks. Patients were monitored for clinical signs and symptoms of infection such as fever, drainage, erythema, or a need for continued wound packing at 4, 7, and 20 weeks after being diagnosed with a wound infection.

RESULTS

The average CRP for all 21 patients at time of diagnosis was 11.7+/-9.0 mg/dL (range 1.2 to 37.8 mg/dL). At the 4-week time-point, 16 patients ("early responders") showed clinical improvement with no fevers, no wound drainage, no erythema, and no need for wound packing. The average CRP of this group at the 4-week time-point decreased to 0.3+/-0.5 mg/dL. In contrast, at the 4-week time-point five patients ("late responders") still had signs and symptoms of infection (2 with continuing drainage requiring wound packing; 1 with vertebral osteomyelitis requiring irrigation and debridement; 2 with erythema without fevers). The average CRP for this group was still elevated at the 4-week time-point at 7.3+/-3.5 mg/dL. The CRP value difference was statistically significant between the two groups (p<.05). As treatment continued, at the 20-week time-point the average CRP of the late responders gradually decreased to 0.8+/-0.8 mg/dL, which was not statistically different from that of the early responders (average CRP=0.6+/-1.1 mg/dL). All 21 patients had resolution of infection at the 20-week time-point. The ESR did not correlate well with clinical improvement. At time of diagnosis, the ESR of both early responders (average=57.6+/-27.6 mm/hr) and late responders (average=64.0+/-21.9 mm/hr) was elevated. It remained elevated for both groups from the beginning of the study to the end at all time-points. The final ESR at the 20-week time-point was not different between the early responders and late responders (average=27.6+/-22.3 mm/hr vs. 31.0+/-2.6 mm/hr, respectively; p>.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that CRP may be of value in following the treatment response to antibiotics in wound infections after spinal surgery. The ESR can remain elevated in the presence of a normal CRP despite a resolution of clinical signs and symptoms of postoperative wound infection.