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Hiney K, Sypniewski L, DeSilva U, Pezeshki A, Rudra P, Goodarzi P, Willis E, McFarlane D. Fecal microbiota composition, serum metabolomics, and markers of inflammation in dogs fed a raw meat-based diet compared to those on a kibble diet. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1328513. [PMID: 38694479 PMCID: PMC11061498 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1328513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Despite the potential health risks associated with feeding raw and non-traditional diets, the use of these diets in dogs is increasing, yet the health outcomes associated with these diets is not well understood. This study investigates the effect of feeding dogs a kibble or raw meat-based diets on fecal microbiota composition, serum metabolomics and inflammatory markers. Methods Clinically healthy dogs with a history of consuming either kibble (KD, n = 27) or raw meat-based diets (RMBD, n = 28) for more than 1 year were enrolled. Dogs were fed a standardized diet of either a single brand of KD or RMBD for 28 days. Serum and fecal samples were collected for analysis of microbiota, metabolomics, and inflammatory markers. Multiple regression analysis was performed for each of the metabolites and inflammatory markers, with feed group, age and BCS included as independent variables. Results The fecal microbiota composition differed between the KD and RMBD groups. Beta-diversity and some indices of alpha-diversity (i.e., Shannon and Simpson) were different between the two diet groups. Sixty- three serum metabolites differed between KD and RMBD-fed dogs with the majority reflecting the differences in macronutrient composition of the two diets.Fecal IAP, IgG and IgA were significantly higher in RMBD dogs compared to KD dogs, while systemic markers of inflammation, including serum c-reactive protein (CRP), galectin, secretory receptor of advanced glycation end-products (sRAGE), haptoglobin, and serum IgG were similar in dogs fed either diet. Discussion Diet composition significantly affected fecal microbiota composition and metabolome. Although it had a potentially beneficial effect on local inflammatory markers, feeding RMBD had no impact on systemic inflammation. The influence of these changes on long term health outcomes provides an area for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kris Hiney
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Ferguson College of Agriculture, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Lara Sypniewski
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Udaya DeSilva
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Ferguson College of Agriculture, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Adel Pezeshki
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Ferguson College of Agriculture, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Pratyaydipta Rudra
- Department of Statistics, College of Arts and Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Parniyan Goodarzi
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Ferguson College of Agriculture, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Erin Willis
- Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Dianne McFarlane
- Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Chen W, Wang Q, Wu H, Xia P, Tian R, Li R, Xia L. Molecular epidemiology, phenotypic and genomic characterization of antibiotic-resistant enterococcal isolates from diverse farm animals in Xinjiang, China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:168683. [PMID: 37996027 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria in farm environments can be transferred to humans through the food chain and occupational exposure. Enterococcus infections caused by linezolid resistant enterococci (LRE) are becoming more challenging to treat as their resistance to antibiotics intensifies. Therefore, this study investigated the molecular epidemiology, phenotypic and genomic characterization of enterococci in seven species of farm animals (sheep, chicken, swine, camel, cattle, equine, pigeon) anal swab from Xinjiang, China by agar dilution method, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and bioinformatics analysis. A total of 771 samples were collected, 599 (78 %) were contaminated with Enterococcus spp., among which Enterococcus faecalis (350/599) was dominant. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that high resistance was observed in rifampicin (80 %), tetracycline (71 %), doxycycline (71 %), and erythromycin (69 %). The results of PCR showed the highest prevalent antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) were aac(6')-aph(2″) (85 %), followed by tet(M) (73 %), erm(B) (62 %), and aph(3')-IIIa (61 %). Besides, 29 optrA-carrying E. faecalis isolates belonging to 13 STs (including 3 new alleles) were detected, with ST714 (31 %, 9/29) being the dominant ST type. The phylogenetic tree showed that optrA-carrying E. faecalis prevalent in the intensive swine farm is mainly caused by clonal transmission. Notably, optrA gene in Enterococcus spp. isolate from camel was first characterized here. WGS of E. faecalis F109 isolate from camel confirmed the colocalization of optrA with other five ARGs in the same plasmid (pAFL-109F). The optrA-harboring genetic context is IS1216E-fexA-optrA-erm(A)-IS1216E. This study highlights the prevalence of MDR Enterococcus (≥88 %) and four ARGs (≥75 %) in swine (intensive farming), cattle (commercial farming), and chickens (backyard farming) are high and also highlights that optrA-carrying E. faecalis of farm animals incur a transmission risk to humans through environment, food consumption and others. Therefore, antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) monitoring and effective control measures should be strengthened and implemented in diverse animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanzhao Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China; Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Herbivore Drug Research and Creation, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
| | - Qiaojun Wang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Huimin Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
| | - Panpan Xia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
| | - Rui Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
| | - Ruichao Li
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.
| | - Lining Xia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China; Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Herbivore Drug Research and Creation, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China.
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Pereira AP, Antunes P, Bierge P, Willems RJL, Corander J, Coque TM, Pich OQ, Peixe L, Freitas AR, Novais C. Unraveling Enterococcus susceptibility to quaternary ammonium compounds: genes, phenotypes, and the impact of environmental conditions. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0232423. [PMID: 37737589 PMCID: PMC10581157 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02324-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) have been extensively used in the community, healthcare facilities, and food chain, in concentrations between 20 and 30,000 mg/L. Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium are ubiquitous in these settings and are recognized as nosocomial pathogens worldwide, but QACs' activity against strains from diverse epidemiological and genomic backgrounds remained largely unexplored. We evaluated the role of Enterococcus isolates from different sources, years, and clonal lineages as hosts of QACs tolerance genes and their susceptibility to QACs in optimal, single-stress and cross-stress growth conditions. Only 1% of the Enterococcus isolates included in this study and 0.5% of publicly available Enterococcus genomes carried qacA/B, qacC, qacG, qacJ, qacZ, qrg, bcrABC or oqxAB genes, shared with >60 species of Bacillota, Pseudomonadota, Actinomycetota, or Spirochaetota. These genes were generally found within close proximity of antibiotics and/or metals resistance genes. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) of benzalkonium chloride (BC) and didecyldimethylammonium chloride ranged between 0.5 and 4 mg/L (microdilution: 37°C/20 h/pH = 7/aerobiosis) for 210 E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates (two isolates carrying qacZ). Modified growth conditions (e.g., 22°C/pH = 5) increased MICBC/MBCBC (maximum of eightfold and MBCBC = 16 mg/L) and changed bacterial growth kinetics under BC toward later stationary phases in both species, including in isolates without QACs tolerance genes. In conclusion, Enterococcus are susceptible to in-use QACs concentrations and rarely carry QACs tolerance genes. However, their potential gene exchange with different microbiota, the decreased susceptibility to QACs under specific environmental conditions, and the presence of subinhibitory QACs concentrations in various settings may contribute to the selection of particular strains and, thus, require a One Health strategy to maintain QACs effectiveness. IMPORTANCE Despite the increasing use of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), the susceptibility of pathogens to these antimicrobials remains largely unknown. Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis are susceptible to in-use QACs concentrations and are not main hosts of QACs tolerance genes but participate in gene transfer pathways with diverse bacterial taxa exposed to these biocides. Moreover, QACs tolerance genes often share the same genetic contexts with antibiotics and/or metals resistance genes, raising concerns about potential co-selection events. E. faecium and E. faecalis showed increased tolerance to benzalkonium chloride under specific environmental conditions (22°C, pH = 5), suggesting that strains might be selected in settings where they occur along with subinhibitory QACs concentrations. Transcriptomic studies investigating the cellular mechanisms of Enterococcus adaptation to QACs tolerance, along with longitudinal metadata analysis of tolerant populations dynamics under the influence of diverse environmental factors, are essential and should be prioritized within a One Health strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana P. Pereira
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Antunes
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Bierge
- Laboratori de Recerca en Microbiologia i Malalties Infeccioses, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d’Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT-CERCA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Sabadell, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Rob J. L. Willems
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jukka Corander
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Helsinki Institute of Information Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teresa M. Coque
- Servicio de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Oscar Q. Pich
- Laboratori de Recerca en Microbiologia i Malalties Infeccioses, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d’Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT-CERCA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Sabadell, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Luisa Peixe
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana R. Freitas
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- 1H-TOXRUN, One Health Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL., Gandra, Portugal
| | - Carla Novais
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - from the ESCMID Study Group on Food- and Water-borne Infections (EFWISG)
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Laboratori de Recerca en Microbiologia i Malalties Infeccioses, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d’Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT-CERCA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Sabadell, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Helsinki Institute of Information Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Servicio de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Madrid, Spain
- 1H-TOXRUN, One Health Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL., Gandra, Portugal
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Ngbede EO, Sy I, Akwuobu CA, Nanven MA, Adikwu AA, Abba PO, Adah MI, Becker SL. Carriage of linezolid-resistant enterococci (LRE) among humans and animals in Nigeria: coexistence of the cfr, optrA, and poxtA genes in Enterococcus faecium of animal origin. J Glob Antimicrob Resist 2023; 34:234-239. [PMID: 37516354 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgar.2023.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In contrast to increasing reports of the emergence of linezolid-resistant enterococci (LRE) emanating from many countries in Europe, Asia, and North America, data on its status and dissemination from the African continent remain scarce, with the information available limited to countries in North Africa. This study investigated the carriage of LRE and the genetic mechanism of resistance among Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis strains recovered from humans and animals in Makurdi, Nigeria. METHODS We conducted a cross-sectional study between June 2020 and July 2021 during which 630 non-duplicate human and animal faecal samples were collected and processed for the recovery of LRE. The genetic mechanisms for resistance were investigated using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Sanger sequencing. RESULTS Linezolid-resistant enterococci were recovered from 5.87% (37/630; 95% CI: 4.17-8.00) of the samples, with the prevalence in animals and humans being 6.22% [(28/450); 95% CI: 4.17-8.87] and 5.00% [(9/180); 95% CI: 2.31-9.28], respectively. All isolates remained susceptible to vancomycin. No known point mutation mediating linezolid resistance was detected in the 23S rRNA and ribosomal protein genes; however, acquisition of one or more potentially transferable genes (cfr, optrA, and poxtA) was observed in 26 of the 37 LRE isolates. Co-existence of all three transferable genes in a single isolate was found in four E. faecium strains of animal origin. CONCLUSION This study provides baseline evidence for the emergence and active circulation of LRE driven majorly by the acquisition of the optrA gene in Nigeria. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to report a co-carriage of all three transferable linezolid resistance determinants in E. faecium. Active LRE surveillance is urgently required to understand the extent of LRE spread across sub-Saharan Africa and to develop tailored mitigation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel O Ngbede
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, Kirrberger Straße, Gebäude 43D-66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria; Leibniz-Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstraße 7B, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Issa Sy
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, Kirrberger Straße, Gebäude 43D-66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Chinedu A Akwuobu
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria; Amadu Ali Centre for Public Health and Comparative Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria
| | - Maurice A Nanven
- National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
| | - Alex A Adikwu
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria
| | - Paul O Abba
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Benue State University Teaching Hospital, Makurdi, Nigeria
| | - Mohammed I Adah
- Amadu Ali Centre for Public Health and Comparative Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria; Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria
| | - Sören L Becker
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, Kirrberger Straße, Gebäude 43D-66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, CH-4002 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland.
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Soares R, Miranda C, Cunha S, Ferreira L, Martins Â, Igrejas G, Poeta P. Antibiotic Resistance of Enterococcus Species in Ornamental Animal Feed. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1761. [PMID: 37889631 PMCID: PMC10251925 DOI: 10.3390/ani13111761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterococcus is a bacterial genus that is strongly associated with nosocomial infections and has a high capacity to transfer and acquire resistance genes. In this study, the main objective was to evaluate the presence of Enterococcus species in ornamental animal feed and characterize their antimicrobial resistance and virulence factors. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined using 14 antimicrobial agents by the disk diffusion method, complemented by genotypic analysis to identify Enterococcus species and the presence of 14 antimicrobial resistance and 10 virulence genes. From 57 samples of ornamental animal feed, 103 Enterococcus isolates were recovered from 15 bird, 9 fish and 4 reptile feed samples. Enterococcus isolates were highly resistance to rifampicin (78%) and erythromycin (48%), and 48% of isolates were classified as multidrug-resistant. Enterococcus faecalis (36.7%) and E. faecium (31.7%) were the species most frequently identified. Most isolates carried the resistance genes ermB (57%) and tetL (52%) and the virulence genes, cylL (52%) and esp (40%). Enterococcus gallinarum was the species with the highest number of multidrug-resistant isolates (50%) and virulence genes (80%). These results highlight the high levels of antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus spp. present in ornamental animal feed and the growing interaction of these animals with humans as a public health concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rúben Soares
- Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Team (MicroART), Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (R.S.); (S.C.); (L.F.); (P.P.)
| | - Carla Miranda
- Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Team (MicroART), Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (R.S.); (S.C.); (L.F.); (P.P.)
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV-REQUIMTE), University NOVA of Lisbon, 1099-085 Caparica, Portugal;
- Toxicology Research Unit (TOXRUN), University Institute of Health Sciences, Advanced Polytechnic and University Cooperative (IUCS-CESPU), 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
| | - Sandra Cunha
- Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Team (MicroART), Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (R.S.); (S.C.); (L.F.); (P.P.)
| | - Luís Ferreira
- Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Team (MicroART), Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (R.S.); (S.C.); (L.F.); (P.P.)
| | - Ângela Martins
- Department of Zootechnics, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Veterinary and Animal Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science (AL4AnimalS), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Gilberto Igrejas
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV-REQUIMTE), University NOVA of Lisbon, 1099-085 Caparica, Portugal;
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Poeta
- Microbiology and Antibiotic Resistance Team (MicroART), Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (R.S.); (S.C.); (L.F.); (P.P.)
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV-REQUIMTE), University NOVA of Lisbon, 1099-085 Caparica, Portugal;
- Veterinary and Animal Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science (AL4AnimalS), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
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Nüesch-Inderbinen M, Heyvaert L, Treier A, Zurfluh K, Cernela N, Biggel M, Stephan R. High occurrence of Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, and Vagococcus lutrae harbouring oxazolidinone resistance genes in raw meat-based diets for companion animals - a public health issue, Switzerland, September 2018 to May 2020. Euro Surveill 2023; 28:2200496. [PMID: 36757316 PMCID: PMC9912375 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2023.28.6.2200496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionEnterococci harbouring genes encoding resistance to florfenicol and the oxazolidinone antimicrobial linezolid have emerged among food-producing animals and meat thereof, but few studies have analysed their occurrence in raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) for pets.AimWe aimed to examine how far RMBDs may represent a source of bacteria with oxazolidinone resistance genes.MethodsFifty-nine samples of different types of RMBDs from 10 suppliers (three based in Germany, seven in Switzerland) were screened for florfenicol-resistant Gram-positive bacteria using a selective culture medium. Isolates were phenotypically and genotypically characterised.ResultsA total of 27 Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, and Vagococcus lutrae isolates were obtained from 24 of the 59 samples. The optrA, poxtA, and cfr genes were identified in 24/27, 6/27 and 5/27 isolates, respectively. Chloramphenicol and linezolid minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranged from 24.0 mg/L-256.0 mg/L, and 1.5 mg/L-8.0 mg/L, respectively. According to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) breakpoints, 26 of 27 isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol (MICs ≥ 32 mg/L), and two were resistant to linezolid (MICs ≥ 8 mg/L). Multilocus sequence typing analysis of the 17 E. faecalis isolates identified 10 different sequence types (ST)s, with ST593 (n = 4 isolates) and ST207 (n = 2 isolates) occurring more than once, and two novel STs (n = 2 isolates). E. faecium isolates belonged to four different STs (168, 264, 822, and 1846).ConclusionThe high occurrence in our sample of Gram-positive bacteria harbouring genes encoding resistance to the critical antimicrobial linezolid is of concern since such bacteria may spread from companion animals to humans upon close contact between pets and their owners.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lore Heyvaert
- Department Veterinary and Biosciences, Faculty Veterinary Medicine, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Andrea Treier
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katrin Zurfluh
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Cernela
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Biggel
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Stephan
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Shao S, Pan W, Wang B, Liu Y, Gan H, Li M, Liao T, Yang X, Yang Q, Huang C, Geng M, Pan G, Liu K, Zhu P, Tao F. Association between antibiotic exposure and the risk of infertility in women of childbearing age: A case-control study. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 249:114414. [PMID: 36516626 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Based on self-report questionnaires, two previous epidemiological studies investigated the association between the exposure of women to antibiotics and their fertility. However, biomonitoring studies on low-dose antibiotic exposure, mainly from food and water, and its relation to the risk of infertility are missing. METHODS Based on a case-control study design, 302 women with infertility (144 primary infertility, 158 secondary infertility) and 302 women with normal fertility, all aged 20-49 years, were recruited from Anhui Province, China, in 2020 and 2021. A total of 41 common antibiotics and two antibiotic metabolites in urine samples were determined by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (LC-QqQ-MS/MS). RESULTS Twenty-eight antibiotics with detection rates from 10% to 100% in both cases (median concentration: ∼2.294 ng/mL) and controls (∼1.596 ng/mL) were included in the analysis. Logistic regression analysis revealed that after controlling for confounding factors, high concentrations of eight individual antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole, sulfaclozine, sulfamonomethoxine, penicillin G, chlorotetracycline, ofloxacin, norfloxacin, and cyadox) and four antibiotic classes (sulfonamides, tetracyclines, quinoxalines, and veterinary antibiotics) were related to a high risk of female infertility, with odds ratios (ORs) ranging from 1.30 to 2.86, except for chlorotetracycline (OR = 6.34), while another nine individual antibiotics (sulfamethazine, azithromycin, cefaclor, amoxicillin, oxytetracycline, pefloxacin, sarafloxacin, enrofloxacin, and florfenicol) and classes of chloramphenicol analogs and human antibiotics were related to a reduced risk of infertility, with ORs ranging from 0.70 to 0.20. Based on restricted cubic spline models after controlling for confounding factors, we observed that the relationship between all of the above protective antibiotics and infertility was nonlinear: A certain concentration could reduce the risk of female infertility while exceeding a safe dose could increase the risk of infertility. CONCLUSION These results provide preliminary evidence that the effects of antibiotics on female fertility vary based on the active ingredient and usage and imply the importance of exposure dose. Future studies are needed to verify these results by controlling for multiple confounding factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Shao
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Weijun Pan
- Clinical Center of Reproductive Medicine, Ma'anshan Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Ma'anshan, Anhui, China
| | - Baolin Wang
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yuwei Liu
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Hong Gan
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Mengdie Li
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Tierong Liao
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xinliu Yang
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Qianhui Yang
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Cun Huang
- Clinical Center of Reproductive Medicine, Ma'anshan Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Ma'anshan, Anhui, China
| | - Menglong Geng
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Guixia Pan
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Kaiyong Liu
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Peng Zhu
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Fangbiao Tao
- School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Study on Abnormal Gametes and Reproductive Tract, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health and Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, No 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, Anhui, China.
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Huang Z, Bai Y, Wang Q, Yang X, Zhang T, Chen X, Wang H. Persistence of transferable oxazolidinone resistance genes in enterococcal isolates from a swine farm in China. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1010513. [PMID: 36299730 PMCID: PMC9589348 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1010513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The appearance of transferable oxazolidinone resistance genes poses a major challenge to public health and environmental safety. These genes not only lead pathogenic bacteria to become resistant to linezolid but also reduce sensitivity to florfenicol, which is widely used in the veterinary field. To verify the dissemination of oxazolidinone resistance genes in enterococcal isolates from pigs at different production stages in a swine farm in China, we collected 355 enterococcal isolates that were resistant to florfenicol from 600 (150 per stage) fresh fecal swabs collected from a swine farm. Through initial PCR screening and whole-genome sequencing, 175 isolates harboring different oxazolidinone resistance genes were identified. All isolates carried the optrA gene. A total of 161 (92%, 161/175) isolates carried only the optrA gene. Three (1.71%, 3/175) isolates carried both the optrA and poxtA genes, and 11 (3.1%, 11/175) isolates contained the optrA gene and poxtA2 and cfr(D) variants. A total of 175 isolates that harbored oxazolidinone resistance genes included 161 E. faecalis, 6 E. faecium, and 8 E. hirae. By sequencing the whole genomes, we found that the 161 isolates of E. faecalis belonged to 28 different STs, including 8 new STs, and the 6 isolates of E. faecium belonged to four different STs, including one new ST. The phylogenetic tree based on SNPs of the core genome showed that both clonal spread and horizontal transfer mediated the diffusion of oxazolidone resistance genes in enterococcal isolates at specific stages in pig farms. Moreover, enterococcal isolates carrying oxazolidone resistance genes could spread from breeding pigs to fattening pigs, while transferable oxazolidone resistance genes in enterococcal isolates could persist on a pig farm throughout all production stages. Representative enterococcal isolates with different oxazolidinone resistance genes were further studied through Nanopore sequencing. We identified a novel plasmid, pM4-80 L4 (15,008 bp), carrying the poxtA2 and cfr(D) genes in enterococcal isolates at different stages. We also found three different plasmids harboring the poxtA gene with high genetic variation, and all poxtA genes were flanked by two copies of IS1216E elements. In addition, four genetically distinct plasmids carrying the optrA gene were identified, and Tn554 was found to mediate chromosome-localized optrA gene transfer. Our study highlighted that transferable oxazolidinone resistance genes in enterococcal isolates could persist throughout all production stages on a pig farm, and the prevalence and dissemination of oxazolidinone resistance genes in enterococcal isolates from animal farms should be continually monitored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheren Huang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yilin Bai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yanglin, China
| | - Qin Wang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xue Yang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Tiejun Zhang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xuan Chen
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hongning Wang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Hongning Wang,
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Pereira AP, Antunes P, Willems R, Corander J, Coque TM, Peixe L, Freitas AR, Novais C. Evolution of Chlorhexidine Susceptibility and of the EfrEF Operon among Enterococcus faecalis from Diverse Environments, Clones, and Time Spans. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0117622. [PMID: 35862993 PMCID: PMC9430118 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01176-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorhexidine (CHX) is widely used to control the spread of pathogens (e.g., human/animal clinical settings, ambulatory care, food industry). Enterococcus faecalis, a major nosocomial pathogen, is broadly distributed in diverse hosts and environments facilitating its exposure to CHX over the years. Nevertheless, CHX activity against E. faecalis is understudied. Our goal was to assess CHX activity and the variability of ChlR-EfrEF proteins (associated with CHX tolerance) among 673 field isolates and 1,784 E. faecalis genomes from the PATRIC database from different sources, time spans, clonal lineages, and antibiotic-resistance profiles. The CHX MIC (MICCHX) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBCCHX) against E. faecalis presented normal distributions (0.5 to 64 mg/L). However, more CHX-tolerant isolates were detected in the food chain and recent human infections, suggesting an adaptability of E. faecalis populations in settings where CHX is heavily used. Heterogeneity in ChlR-EfrEF sequences was identified, with isolates harboring incomplete ChlR-EfrEF proteins, particularly the EfrE identified in the ST40 clonal lineage, showing low MICCHX (≤1mg/L). Distinct ST40-E. faecalis subpopulations carrying truncated and nontruncated EfrE were detected, with the former being predominant in human isolates. This study provides a new insight about CHX susceptibility and ChlR-EfrEF variability within diverse E. faecalis populations. The MICCHX/MBCCHX of more tolerant E. faecalis (MICCHX = 8 mg/L; MBCCHX = 64 mg/L) remain lower than in-use concentrations of CHX (≥500 mg/L). However, increased CHX use, combined with concentration gradients occurring in diverse environments, potentially selecting multidrug-resistant strains with different CHX susceptibilities, signals the importance of monitoring the trends of E. faecalis CHX tolerance within a One Health approach. IMPORTANCE Chlorhexidine (CHX) is a disinfectant and antiseptic used since the 1950s and included in the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines. It has been widely applied in hospitals, the community, the food industry, animal husbandry and pets. CHX tolerance in Enterococcus faecalis, a ubiquitous bacterium and one of the leading causes of human hospital-acquired infections, remains underexplored. Our study provides novel and comprehensive insights about CHX susceptibility within the E. faecalis population structure context, revealing more CHX-tolerant subpopulations from the food chain and recent human infections. We further show a detailed analysis of the genetic diversity of the efrEF operon (previously associated with E. faecalis CHX tolerance) and its correlation with CHX phenotypes. The recent strains with a higher tolerance to CHX and the multiple sources where bacteria are exposed to this biocide alert us to the need for the continuous monitoring of E. faecalis adaptation toward CHX tolerance within a One Health approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana P. Pereira
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biological Sciences, REQUIMTE Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Antunes
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biological Sciences, REQUIMTE Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rob Willems
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jukka Corander
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Helsinki Institute of Information Technology, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teresa M. Coque
- Servicio de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBER-EII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Luísa Peixe
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biological Sciences, REQUIMTE Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana R. Freitas
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biological Sciences, REQUIMTE Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- TOXRUN, Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL, Gandra, Portugal
| | - Carla Novais
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biological Sciences, REQUIMTE Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Nüesch-Inderbinen M, Biggel M, Zurfluh K, Treier A, Stephan R. Faecal carriage of enterococci harbouring oxazolidinone resistance genes among healthy humans in the community in Switzerland. J Antimicrob Chemother 2022; 77:2779-2783. [PMID: 35971252 PMCID: PMC9525073 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkac260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives This study aimed to investigate the faecal carriage of enterococci harbouring oxazolidinone resistance genes among healthy humans in Switzerland and to genetically characterize the isolates. Methods A total of 399 stool samples from healthy individuals employed in different food-processing plants were cultured on a selective medium containing 10 mg/L florfenicol. Resulting enterococci were screened by PCR for the presence of cfr, optrA and poxtA. A hybrid approach combining short-read and long-read WGS was used to analyse the genetic context of the cfr, optrA and poxtA genes. Results Enterococcus faecalis (n = 6), Enterococcus faecium (n = 6), Enterococcus gallinarum (n = 1) and Enterococcus hirae (n = 2) were detected in 15/399 (3.8%) of the faecal samples. They carried cfr + poxtA, optrA, optrA + poxtA or poxtA. Four E. faecalis harbouring optrA and one E. faecium carrying poxtA were resistant to linezolid (8 mg/L). In most optrA-positive isolates, the genetic environments of optrA were highly variable, but often resembled previously described platforms. In most poxtA-positive isolates, the poxtA gene was flanked on both sides by IS1216E elements and located on medium-sized plasmids. Conclusions Faecal carriage of Enterococcus spp. harbouring cfr, optrA and poxtA in healthy humans associated with the food-production industry demonstrates the possibility of spread of oxazolidinone resistance genes into the community. Given the importance of linezolid as a last-resort antibiotic for the treatment of serious infections caused by Gram-positive pathogens, the detection of the oxazolidinone resistance determinants in enterococci from healthy humans is of concern for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Nüesch-Inderbinen
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 272 Winterthurerstrasse, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Biggel
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 272 Winterthurerstrasse, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katrin Zurfluh
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 272 Winterthurerstrasse, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Treier
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 272 Winterthurerstrasse, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Stephan
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 272 Winterthurerstrasse, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Li P, Gao M, Feng C, Yan T, Sheng Z, Shi W, Liu S, Zhang L, Li A, Lu J, Lin X, Li K, Xu T, Bao Q, Sun C. Molecular characterization of florfenicol and oxazolidinone resistance in Enterococcus isolates from animals in China. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:811692. [PMID: 35958123 PMCID: PMC9360786 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.811692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Florfenicol is widely used for the treatment of bacterial infections in domestic animals. The aim of this study was to analyze the molecular mechanisms of florfenicol and oxazolidinone resistance in Enterococcus isolates from anal feces of domestic animals. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) levels were determined by the agar dilution method. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to analyze the distribution of the resistance genes. Whole-genome sequencing and comparative plasmid analysis was conducted to analyze the resistance gene environment. A total of 351 non-duplicated enteric strains were obtained. Among these isolates, 22 Enterococcus isolates, including 19 Enterococcus. faecium and 3 Enterococcus. faecalis, were further studied. 31 florfenicol resistance genes (13 fexA, 3 fexB, 12 optrA, and 3 poxtA genes) were identified in 15 of the 19 E. faecium isolates, and no florfenicol or oxazolidinone resistance genes were identified in 3 E. faecalis isolates. Whole-genome sequencing of E. faecium P47, which had all four florfenicol and oxazolidinone resistance genes and high MIC levels for both florfenicol (256 mg/L) and linezolid (8 mg/L), revealed that it contained a chromosome and 3 plasmids (pP47-27, pP47-61, and pP47-180). The four florfenicol and oxazolidinone resistance genes were all related to the insertion sequences IS1216 and located on two smaller plasmids. The genes fexB and poxtA encoded in pP47-27, while fexA and optrA encoded in the conjugative plasmid pP47-61. Comparative analysis of homologous plasmids revealed that the sequences with high identities were plasmid sequences from various Enterococcus species except for the Tn6349 sequence from a Staphylococcus aureus chromosome (MH746818.1). The current study revealed that florfenicol and oxazolidinone resistance genes (fexA, fexB, poxtA, and optrA) were widely distributed in Enterococcus isolates from animal in China. The mobile genetic elements, including the insertion sequences and conjugative plasmid, played an important role in the horizontal transfer of florfenicol and oxazolidinone resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingping Li
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Nursing Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Zhoukou Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Zhoukou, China
| | - Mengdi Gao
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Chunlin Feng
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Tielun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zhiqiong Sheng
- School of Nursing, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Weina Shi
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Shuang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Anqi Li
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Junwan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Xi Lin
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Kewei Li
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Teng Xu
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Baotou Central Hospital, Baotou, China
- Teng Xu,
| | - Qiyu Bao
- Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of Zhejiang Province, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Qiyu Bao,
| | - Caixia Sun
- Nursing Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Institute of Biomedical Informatics, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Caixia Sun,
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Enterococcus Virulence and Resistant Traits Associated with Its Permanence in the Hospital Environment. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11070857. [PMID: 35884110 PMCID: PMC9311936 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11070857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterococcus are opportunistic pathogens that have been gaining importance in the clinical setting, especially in terms of hospital-acquired infections. This problem has mainly been associated with the fact that these bacteria are able to present intrinsic and extrinsic resistance to different classes of antibiotics, with a great deal of importance being attributed to vancomycin-resistant enterococci. However, other aspects, such as the expression of different virulence factors including biofilm-forming ability, and its capacity of trading genetic information, makes this bacterial genus more capable of surviving harsh environmental conditions. All these characteristics, associated with some reports of decreased susceptibility to some biocides, all described in this literary review, allow enterococci to present a longer survival ability in the hospital environment, consequently giving them more opportunities to disseminate in these settings and be responsible for difficult-to-treat infections.
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Rodríguez-Lucas C, Fernández J, Vázquez X, de Toro M, Ladero V, Fuster C, Rodicio R, Rodicio MR. Detection of the optrA Gene Among Polyclonal Linezolid-Susceptible Isolates of Enterococcus faecalis Recovered from Community Patients. Microb Drug Resist 2022; 28:773-779. [PMID: 35727074 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2021.0402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dispersion of transferable oxazolidinone resistance genes among enterococci poses a serious problem to human health. Prompt detection of bacteria carrying these genes is crucial to avoid their spread to multidrug-resistant bacteria. The aim of the study was to describe the presence of optrA-positive isolates among enterococci in a Spanish hospital, and to determine their genetic context and location through whole genome sequencing. All enterococci recovered in a Spanish hospital (Hospital El Bierzo; HEB) from February to December 2018 (n = 443), with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) to linezolid (LZD) ≥4 mg/L, were tested by polymerase chain reaction for the presence of cfr, optrA, and poxtA transferable genes. Only four Enterococcus faecalis isolates (0.9%) had LZD MICs ≥4 mg/L and none of them was positive for cfr or poxtA genes. However, the optrA gene was detected in three isolates collected from urine samples of community patients, whose genomes were sequenced and subjected to bioinformatics analysis. These isolates belonged to different clones: ST7, ST480, and ST585. In these three isolates, the optrA gene was located on plasmids, associated with IS1216 in different arrays. In one isolate, the optrA plasmid coexists with a second plasmid, which carried multiple resistance genes for different classes of antibiotics. Detection of optrA-positive E. faecalis isolates in the community is a matter of concern. The spread of these bacteria into hospital settings, particularly in those, such as the HEB, where vancomycin-resistant enterococci are endemic, should be avoided, to preserve the efficacy of the last-resort oxazolidinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Rodríguez-Lucas
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario de Cabueñes, Gijón, Spain.,Grupo de Microbiología Traslacional. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Javier Fernández
- Grupo de Microbiología Traslacional. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.,Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, Spain.,Research & Innovation, Artificial Intelligence and Statistical Department, Pragmatech AI Solutions, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Xenia Vázquez
- Grupo de Microbiología Traslacional. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.,Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - María de Toro
- Plataforma de Genómica y Bioinformática, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de La Rioja (CIBIR), Logroño, Spain
| | - Víctor Ladero
- Insituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias (IPLA-CSIC), Villaviciosa, Spain.,Grupo de Microbiología Molecular, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Carlos Fuster
- Unidad de Microbiología, Hospital El Bierzo (HEB), Ponferrada, Spain
| | - Rosaura Rodicio
- Grupo de Microbiología Traslacional. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.,Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - María Rosario Rodicio
- Grupo de Microbiología Traslacional. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.,Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
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14
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Freitas AR, Tedim AP, Almeida-Santos AC, Duarte B, Elghaieb H, Abbassi MS, Hassen A, Novais C, Peixe L. High-Resolution Genotyping Unveils Identical Ampicillin-Resistant Enterococcus faecium Strains in Different Sources and Countries: A One Health Approach. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10030632. [PMID: 35336207 PMCID: PMC8948916 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10030632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Enterococcus faecium (Efm) infections continue to increase worldwide, although epidemiological studies remain scarce in lower middle-income countries. We aimed to explore which strains circulate in E. faecium causing human infections in Tunisian healthcare institutions in order to compare them with strains from non-human sources of the same country and finally to position them within the global E. faecium epidemiology by genomic analysis. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed and transfer of vancomycin-vanA and ampicillin-pbp5 resistance was performed by conjugation. WGS-Illumina was performed on Tunisian strains, and these genomes were compared with Efm genomes from other regions present in the GenBank/NCBI database (n = 10,701 Efm genomes available May 2021). A comparison of phenotypes with those predicted by the recent ResFinder 4.1-CGE webtool unveiled a concordance of 88%, with discordant cases being discussed. cgMLST revealed three clusters [ST18/CT222 (n = 13), ST17/CT948 strains (n = 6), and ST203/CT184 (n = 3)], including isolates from clinical, healthy-human, retail meat, and/or environmental sources in different countries over large time spans (10–12 years). Isolates within each cluster showed similar antibiotic resistance, bacteriocin, and virulence genetic patterns. pbp5-AmpR was transferred by VanA-AmpR-ST80 (clinical) and AmpR-ST17-Efm (bovine meat). Identical chromosomal pbp5-platforms carrying metabolic/virulence genes were identified between ST17/ST18 strains of clinical, farm animal, and retail meat sources. The overall results emphasize the role of high-resolution genotyping as provided by WGS in depicting the dispersal of MDR-Efm strains carrying relevant adaptive traits across different hosts/regions and the need of a One Health task force to curtail their spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana R. Freitas
- Laboratory of Microbiology, UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUIMTE, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal or (A.C.A.-S.); (B.D.); (C.N.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- TOXRUN—Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
- Correspondence: or (A.R.F.); (L.P.); Tel.: +351-220-428-580 (L.P.)
| | - Ana P. Tedim
- Grupo de Investigación Biomédica en Sepsis-BioSepsis, Hospital Universitario Río Hortega, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), 47012 Valladollid, Spain;
| | - Ana C. Almeida-Santos
- Laboratory of Microbiology, UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUIMTE, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal or (A.C.A.-S.); (B.D.); (C.N.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bárbara Duarte
- Laboratory of Microbiology, UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUIMTE, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal or (A.C.A.-S.); (B.D.); (C.N.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Houyem Elghaieb
- Tunisian Institute of Veterinary Research, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1006, Tunisia; (H.E.); (M.S.A.)
| | - Mohamed S. Abbassi
- Tunisian Institute of Veterinary Research, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1006, Tunisia; (H.E.); (M.S.A.)
| | - Abdennaceur Hassen
- Laboratory of Treatment and Valorisation of Wastewater, Centre of Research and Water Technologies (CERTE), Technopark of Borj-Cédria, Soliman 8020, Tunisia;
| | - Carla Novais
- Laboratory of Microbiology, UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUIMTE, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal or (A.C.A.-S.); (B.D.); (C.N.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Luísa Peixe
- Laboratory of Microbiology, UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, REQUIMTE, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal or (A.C.A.-S.); (B.D.); (C.N.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: or (A.R.F.); (L.P.); Tel.: +351-220-428-580 (L.P.)
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15
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McHugh MP, Parcell BJ, Pettigrew KA, Toner G, Khatamzas E, El Sakka N, Karcher AM, Walker J, Weir R, Meunier D, Hopkins KL, Woodford N, Templeton KE, Gillespie SH, Holden MTG. Presence of optrA-mediated linezolid resistance in multiple lineages and plasmids of Enterococcus faecalis revealed by long read sequencing. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2022; 168. [PMID: 35130141 PMCID: PMC8941993 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Transferable linezolid resistance due to optrA, poxtA, cfr and cfr-like genes is increasingly detected in enterococci associated with animals and humans globally. We aimed to characterize the genetic environment of optrA in linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolates from Scotland. Six linezolid-resistant E. faecalis isolated from urogenital samples were confirmed to carry the optrA gene by PCR. Short read (Illumina) sequencing showed the isolates were genetically distinct (>13900 core SNPs) and belonged to different MLST sequence types. Plasmid contents were examined using hybrid assembly of short and long read (Oxford Nanopore MinION) sequencing technologies. The optrA gene was located on distinct plasmids in each isolate, suggesting that transfer of a single plasmid did not contribute to optrA dissemination in this collection. pTM6294-2, BX5936-1 and pWE0438-1 were similar to optrA-positive plasmids from China and Japan, while the remaining three plasmids had limited similarity to other published examples. We identified the novel Tn6993 transposon in pWE0254-1 carrying linezolid (optrA), macrolide (ermB) and spectinomycin [ANT(9)-Ia] resistance genes. OptrA amino acid sequences differed by 0–20 residues. We report multiple variants of optrA on distinct plasmids in diverse strains of E. faecalis. It is important to identify the selection pressures driving the emergence and maintenance of resistance against linezolid to retain the clinical utility of this antibiotic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin P McHugh
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK.,NHS Lothian Infection Service, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Benjamin J Parcell
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK.,Medical Microbiology, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK.,Present address: Medical Microbiology, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK
| | - Kerry A Pettigrew
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK.,Present address: School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Geoff Toner
- NHS Lothian Infection Service, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Elham Khatamzas
- NHS Lothian Infection Service, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Present address: Department of Medicine III, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Noha El Sakka
- Medical Microbiology, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Anne Marie Karcher
- Medical Microbiology, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK.,Present address: Medical Microbiology, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK
| | - Joanna Walker
- Medical Microbiology, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Robert Weir
- Medical Microbiology, Forth Valley Royal Hospital, Larbert, UK
| | - Danièle Meunier
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Healthcare Associated Infections (AMRHAI) Reference Unit, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - Katie L Hopkins
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Healthcare Associated Infections (AMRHAI) Reference Unit, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - Neil Woodford
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Healthcare Associated Infections (AMRHAI) Reference Unit, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - Kate E Templeton
- NHS Lothian Infection Service, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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