Can the water quality influence the chemical composition, sensory properties, and oxidative stability of traditionally extracted argan oil?

Combined Effects of Domestication and Extraction Technique on Essential Oil Yield, Chemical Profiling, and Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.)

We aimed at comparing the effects of domestication and extraction technique on the chemical profiling and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil (ROEO). This was isolated from wild (WR) and cultivated rosemary (CR) using microwave-assisted extraction (ME) and Clevenger hydrodistillation (CH). Domestication was the main variability source in ROEO constituents, while yield was equally determined by domestication and extraction techniques. Our results revealed important variations, owing to domestication and isolation technique, in terms of ROEO yield (1.10–2.85%), major compounds: α-pinene (14.07–42.03%), camphene (2.26–8.19%), β-pinene (0.35–3.76%), α-terpinene (0.55–2.92%), p-cymene (1.22–4.18%), limonene (0.64–2.79%), 1,8-cineole (31.73–40.72%), β-myrcene (2.09–3.2%), linalool (0.22–1.94%), camphor (12.12–19.66%), borneol (0.53–1.67%), and α-terpineol (1.46–7.45%) as well as minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC, 6.17–15.50 μg/mL), and antioxidant activity (IC50, 2.61–8.58 mg/mL). WR performed better in terms of yield, limonene, cineole, camphor, MIC, and IC50, while the remaining compounds were better expressed in CR. ME displayed high records of ROEO traits except for limonene, camphor, and verbenone (better expressed in CH). Principal component analysis confirmed the obtained findings via the separation of WR, CR, and techniques through the first two components (over 93% of data variability). In conclusion, R. officinalis domestication results in differentiated effects on ROEO traits, fostering a better accumulation of some compounds but reducing yield of other compounds and therefore antioxidant along with antimicrobial activity. ME could be recommended as a green method for ROEO isolation since it was more efficient in terms of the investigated ROEO traits.

Physical Fruit Traits, Proximate Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Profiling of Fatty Acids and Minerals of Wild Jujube (Ziziphus lotus L. (Desf.)) Fruits from Eleven Moroccan Origins

This study aimed at investigating the effects of geographical origin on physical fruit traits, proximate composition, fatty acid, and elemental profiling of Moroccan wild jujube (Ziziphus lotus) fruits. Likewise, solvent effects on total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), tannin content, and antioxidant activity were also studied. Fruits were sampled from eleven sites where the species grows widely across Morocco (Tafraoute, Taroudant, Zagora, Rhamna, Beni Mellal, Zaouit Cheikh, Khenifra, B-Jaad, Lkhmissat, Sidi Hrazm, and Taounat). Physical fruit traits (length, width, and weight), proximate composition, and minerals were investigated. Fatty acid profiling of extracted oil was also evaluated. TPC and TFC as well as antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP) were determined on four different extracts, namely, ethanol extract (EE), methanol extract (ME), acetone extract (AE), and water extract (WE). Our outcomes revealed significant differences ( $p<0.05$ ) among different origins for the measured fruit traits including ash (1.69–2.31%), moisture (2.56–5.69%), proteins (2.63–4.64%), oil (1.59–2.91%) and carbohydrates (86.82–89.20%). The most abundant minerals were K (548.93–828.44 mg/100 g) and Ca (137.50–211.78 mg/100 g). Major fatty acids were oleic acid (50.65 –60.25%), palmitic acid (12.03–18.67%), and linoleic acid (12.63–17.21%). Acetone performed better in terms of TPC (12.77–21.67 mg GAE/g DM), TFC (11.00–18.92 mg QE/g DM), and antioxidant activity using ABTS (22.96–29.32 mg TE/g DM), DPPH (27.96–96.64%), and FRAP (8.37–37.59 mg AAE/g DM). In conclusion, Z. lotus fruit could be considered as a source of carbohydrates and minerals and also natural antioxidants.

Argan Oil: Chemical Composition, Extraction Process, and Quality Control

Argan oil is considered a relatively international product exported from Morocco, although different companies in Europe and North America distribute argan oil around the globe. Argan oil is non-refined vegetable oil, of the more well-known “virgin oil” type, is produced from the argan tree [Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels]. The argan tree is deemed to be an important forest species from both social and economic standpoints. Argan oil has rapidly emerged as an important product able to bring more income to the local population. In addition, it also has important environmental implications, owing to its ability to stand against desert progression. Currently, argan oil is mainly produced by women's cooperatives in Morocco using a semi-industrial mechanical extraction process. This allows the production of high-quality argan oil. Depending on the method used to prepare argan kernels, two types of argan oil can be obtained: food or cosmetic grade. Cosmetic argan oil is prepared from unroasted kernels, whereas food argan oil is achieved by cold pressing kernels roasted for a few minutes. Previously, the same food argan oil was prepared exclusively by women according to a laborious ancestral process. Extraction technology has been evolved to obtain high-quality argan oil at a large scale. The extraction process and several accompanying parameters can influence the quality, stability, and purity of argan oil. In view of this, the present review discusses different aspects related to argan oil chemical composition along with its nutritional and cosmetic values. Similarly, it details different processes used to prepare argan oil, as well as its quality control, oxidative stability, and authenticity assessment.