Reduced-toxicity conditioning with treosulfan and fludarabine in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for myelodysplastic syndromes: final results of an international prospective phase II trial

Current status of conditioning regimens in haploidentical hematopoietic cell transplantation

The development of effective prophylaxis strategies against graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) has contributed to the widespread use of haploidentical related hematopoietic cell transplantation (Haplo-HCT). Currently, GVHD prophylaxis containing posttransplant cyclophosphamide (PTCY) is considered the standard of care in Haplo-HCT, and recent studies have shown comparable results for PTCY-based Haplo-HCT and HCT from other donor sources. The conditioning regimen plays an important role in eradicating tumor cells to prevent disease relapse and suppressing the recipient's immune system to facilitate engraftment. PTCY-based Haplo-HCT was initially developed using a nonmyeloablative conditioning regimen consisting of fludarabine, cyclophosphamide and low-dose total body irradiation, but high relapse rates reinforced the need to intensify the conditioning regimen. In this respect, various myeloablative and reduced-intensity conditioning regimens have been investigated. However, the optimal conditioning regimens for PTCY-based Haplo-HCT have not yet been established, and this issue needs to be addressed based on data from patients undergoing the procedure. In this article, we review the existing literature on conditioning regimens for PTCY-based Haplo-HCT and discuss future perspectives.

Treosulfan is a safe and effective alternative to busulfan for conditioning in adult allogeneic HSCT patients: Data from a single center

INTRODUCTION

Type of conditioning regimen impacts the outcome of patients who undergo allogeneic HSCT since graft versus host disease (GVHD), infections, regimen related toxicities (RRT) are important causes of post-transplant mortality. Despite the RRT profile of busulfan, it is frequently used worldwide. Treosulfan has advantages in terms of dose of administration, lower incidence of sinusoidal obstruction syndrome and lower neurotoxicity. We retrospectively investigated outcomes of patients who underwent allogeneic HSCT with treosulfan or busulfan based conditioning regimens in our institution.

METHODS

Treosulfan was administered to 94 patients while 85 patients received busulfan. Our outcomes were RRT, chronic and acute GVHD, relapse related mortality (RRM), non-relapse mortality, and fungal infection. The clinical follow up data, regarding the primary and secondary endpoints of our study, of the patients who received treosulfan or busulfan based conditioning regimens were statistically analyzed.

RESULTS

The median follow-up was 14 months for the treosulfan group while it was 11 months for the busulfan group (p = 0.16). RRT was 11.7% and 7.1% for treosulfan and busulfan respectively. The incidence of extensive chronic GVHD was less frequent in the treosulfan group compared to the busulfan group (15.7% vs. 32.1%) (p < 0.001). The incidence of acute GVHD (Grade 3 or higher) was 32.2% in the treosulfan group while it was 31.6% in the busulfan group. The RRM was 17% in the treosulfan group while it was 34% in the busulfan group. The non-relapse mortality was 35.5% and 29.4% in the treosulfan group and in the busulfan group respectively (p = 0.962).

CONCLUSION

Treosulfan, with a lower RRM, lower chronic GVHD incidence and with a similar RRT profile appears to be a safe alternative to busulfan.

Fludarabine-treosulfan versus fludarabine-melphalan or busulfan-cyclophosphamide conditioning in older AML or MDS patients - A clinical trial to registry data comparison

A randomized study (acronym: MC-FludT.14/L Trial II) demonstrated that fludarabine plus treosulfan (30 g/m²) was an effective and well tolerated conditioning regimen for allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) in older patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). To further evaluate this regimen, all 252 study patients aged 50 to 70 years were compared with similar patients, who underwent allo-HCT after fludarabine/melphalan (140 mg/m²) (FluMel) or busulfan (12.8 mg/kg)/cyclophosphamide (120 mg/kg) (BuCy) regimens and whose data was provided by the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation registry. In 1:1 propensity-score matched-paired analysis (PSA) of AML patients, there was no difference in 2-year-relapse-incidence after FluTreo compared with either FluMel (n = 110, p = 0.28) or BuCy (n = 78, p = 0.98). However, 2-year-non-relapse-mortality (NRM) was lower compared with FluMel (p = 0.019) and BuCy (p < 0.001). Consequently, 2-year-overall-survival (OS) after FluTreo was higher compared with FluMel (p = 0.04) and BuCy (p < 0.001). For MDS patients, no endpoint differences between FluTreo and FluMel (n = 30) were evident, whereas 2-year-OS after FluTreo was higher compared with BuCy (n = 25, p = 0.01) due to lower 2-year-NRM. Multivariate sensitivity analysis confirmed all significant results of PSA. Consequently, FluTreo (30 g/m²) seems to retain efficacy compared with FluMel and BuCy, but is better tolerated by older patients.

Treosulfan- Versus Busulfan-based Conditioning in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for Myelodysplastic Syndrome: A Single-center Retrospective Propensity Score-matched Cohort Study

Treosulfan has shown promise in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) for its myeloablative properties and low toxicity. In this single-center retrospective propensity score-matched cohort study we compared treosulfan- and busulfan-based conditioning in allogeneic HCT for patients with myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). This study included 138 adults who underwent allogeneic HCT for MDS or chronic myelomonocytic leukemia at Princess Margaret Hospital, Toronto, from 2015 to 2022. Using propensity score matching, we compared transplant outcomes between 2 well-matched cohorts who received conditioning with either fludarabine-treosulfan (FT) (n = 46) or fludarabine-busulfan with total body irradiation (FBT200) (n = 92). A scoring system based on patient age, Karnofsky performance score, and hematopoietic cell transplant comorbidity index was used to assign patients based on fitness to low-dose (30 g/m2) or high-dose (42 g/m2) treosulfan: 32 (69.6%) received high-dose treosulfan. The racial composition of the 2 groups was similar, with 27.2% and 21.7% of FBT200 and FT recipients, respectively, identifying as non-Caucasian (P = .61). Primary outcomes were analyzed at a median follow-up of 747 days. Of all participants, 116 (84.0%) received graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis with post-transplant cyclophosphamide (PTCY) and antithymocyte globulin (ATG). Patients who received FT had a superior 2-year overall survival (OS) compared to those who received FBT200: 66.9% (95% confidence interval (CI): 46.1 to 81.2) versus 44.5% (95% CI: 34 to 54.4), hazard ratio (HR): 0.43, 95% CI: 0.22 to 0.84 (P = .013). In multivariate analysis (MVA), only the use of fresh grafts (P = .02) and FT (P = .01) were associated with improved OS. FT was associated with superior 2-year relapse-free survival (RFS) compared to FBT200: 63.1% (95% CI: 42.6 to 77.9) versus 39.1% (95% CI: 29.1 to 49.1), HR: 0.44 (95% CI: 0.24 to 0.81), P = .008. In MVA, the use of fresh grafts (P = .03) and FT (P = .009) were associated with improved RFS. Recipients of FT demonstrated superior 2-year graft-versus-host disease relapse-free survival (GRFS) compared to those who received FBT200: 57.4% (95% CI: 37.8 to 72.8) versus 35.1% (95% CI: 25.5 to 45). In MVA, only FT was associated with superior GRFS (P = .02). FT recipients exhibited markedly superior 1-year event-free survival compared to recipients of FBT200 in univariate analysis (40.3% (95% CI: 25.9 to 54.2) versus 9.2% (95% CI: 4.4 to 16.3), HR: 0.47 (95% CI: 0.30 to 0.72), P < .001) and MVA (P = .004). FT was associated with lower 1-year nonrelapse mortality compared to FBT200 in univariate analysis (9.9% (95% CI: 3.0 to 21.8) versus 29.7% (95% CI: 20.6 to 39.3), HR: 0.41 (95% CI: 0.17 to 0.96), P = .04) and MVA (P = .04). Our study utilized propensity score matching to demonstrate superiority of treosulfan- over busulfan-based conditioning in stem cell transplantation of patients with MDS and is the first to evaluate the performance of treosulfan-based conditioning in combination with ATG and PTCY. As such, it contributes to the increasing body of evidence supporting the safety of treosulfan, even at the dose of 42 g/m2.

Treosulfan vs busulfan conditioning for allogeneic bmt in children with nonmalignant disease: a randomized phase 2 trial

Optimal conditioning prior to allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for children with non-malignant diseases is subject of ongoing research. This prospective, randomized, phase 2 trial compared safety and efficacy of busulfan with treosulfan based preparative regimens. Children with non-malignant diseases received fludarabine and either intravenous (IV) busulfan (4.8 to 3.2 mg/kg/day) or IV treosulfan (10, 12, or 14 g/m2/day). Thiotepa administration (2 × 5 mg/kg) was at the investigator's discretion. Primary endpoint was freedom from transplantation (treatment)-related mortality (freedom from TRM), defined as death between Days -7 and +100. Overall, 101 patients (busulfan 50, treosulfan 51) with at least 12 months follow-up were analyzed. Freedom from TRM was 90.0% (95% CI: 78.2%, 96.7%) after busulfan and 100.0% (95% CI: 93.0%, 100.0%) after treosulfan. Secondary outcomes (transplantation-related mortality [12.0% versus 3.9%]) and overall survival (88.0% versus 96.1%) favored treosulfan. Graft failure was more common after treosulfan (n = 11), than after busulfan (n = 2) while all patients were rescued by second procedures except one busulfan patient. CTCAE Grade III adverse events were similar in both groups. This study confirmed treosulfan to be an excellent alternative to busulfan and can be safely used for conditioning treatment in children with non-malignant disease.

Metformin pretreatment ameliorates busulfan-induced liver endothelial toxicity during haematopoietic stem cell transplantation

The success of Haematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) is often limited by regimen-related toxicity (RRT) caused by conditioning regimen drugs. Among different conditioning drugs, busulfan (Bu) and treosulfan (Treo), although widely used in HCT, exhibit different toxicity profiles, the mechanism of which is still unclear. Here we investigated the effects of Bu and Treo in endothelial cells. While both Bu and Treo induced DNA damage in endothelial cells, we observed Bu alone to induce oxidative stress and sustained activation of phospho-ERK1/2, leading to apoptosis. However, Treo-treated cells exhibited no oxidative stress/apoptosis of endothelial cells. Screening of pharmacological inhibitors of both ROS and p-ERK revealed that metformin effectively ameliorates Bu-mediated toxicity in endothelial cells. In Balb/c mice, we observed a significant reduction in bone marrow endothelial cells in Bu-treated mice compared to Treo-treated mice. Further, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC) was damaged by Bu, which is implicated in liver vasculature and their functional capacity to uptake FITC-albumin. However, Treo-treated mice liver vasculature was morphologically and functionally normal. When mice were pretreated with metformin followed by Bu, LSECs damage was ameliorated morphologically and functionally. Bone marrow transplants done on these mice did not affect the engraftment of donor cells.

Population pharmacokinetic modeling of treosulfan and rationale for dose recommendation in children treated for conditioning prior to allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Intravenously infused treosulfan was evaluated in adult and pediatric patients for conditioning regimen prior to allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. A population pharmacokinetic (PK) model was initially developed on 116 adult and pediatric PK profiles from historical trials, to support treosulfan dose recommendations for children in 2 prospective trials. The aim was to assess and update the initial population PK model by inclusion of additional 83 pediatric PK profiles from these 2 trials. The final population PK model was 2-compartmental with dosing in the central compartment, linear elimination, and inter-compartmental clearance. Inter-individual variability was included on clearance (CL), central volume (V1), peripheral volume (V2), and inter-compartmental clearance (Q). The final model described an effect of the body surface area (BSA) on CL, V1, V2, and Q. The final model resulted in a modified dose recommendation for children and advises treosulfan doses of 10 g/m2, 12 g/m2, and 14 g/m2 for BSAs of <0.4 m2, ≥0.4 to <0.9 m2, and ≥0.9 m2, respectively. This simplified BSA-dependent dose recommendation was developed for children, ensuring a well comparable treosulfan exposure as a dose of 14 g/m2 in adults - irrespective of their age and without applying individual therapeutic drug monitoring.

Human herpesvirus 6-specific T-cell immunity in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients

Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) can reactivate after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (allo-HSCT) and may lead to severe symptoms. HHV-6-specific immune responses after HSCT are largely unexplored. We conducted a prospective observational study on 208 consecutive adult patients who received allo-HSCT to investigate HHV-6 reactivations and specific immune responses. Interferon gamma-producing HHV-6-specific T cells were quantified using enzyme-linked immunospot assay (ELISpot). HHV-6 reactivation occurred in 63% of patients, at a median of 25 days from allo-HSCT. Only 40% of these presented a clinically relevant infection, defined by the presence of classical HHV-6 end-organ diseases (EODs), based on European Conference on Infections in Leukaemia (ECIL) guidelines, and other possible HHV6-related EODs. Using multivariate analysis, we identified risk factors for HHV-6 reactivation: previous allo-HSCT, posttransplant cyclophosphamide (PT-Cy), and time-dependent steroids introduction. The use of PT-Cy and steroids were associated with clinically relevant infections, whereas higher CD3+ cell counts seemed to be protective. Interestingly, circulating HHV-6-specific T cells were significantly higher in patients with reactivated virus. Moreover, HHV-6-specific T-cell responses, quantified at >4 days after the first viremia detection, predicted clinically relevant infections (P < .0001), with higher specificity (93%) and sensitivity (79%) than polyclonal CD3+ cells per μL. Overall survival and transplant-related mortality were not affected by time-dependent HHV-6 reactivation, whereas a significant association was observed between clinically relevant infections and acute graft-versus-host disease. These results shed light on the role of HHV-6 in allo-HSCT and may affect HHV-6 monitoring and treatment.

Comparative study of treosulfan plus Fludarabine (FT14) with busulfan plus Fludarabine (FB4) for acute myeloid leukemia in first or second complete remission: An analysis from the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) Acute Leukemia Working Party (ALWP)

Different doses of treosulfan plus fludarabine have shown advantage over reduced intensity regimens. However, data comparing higher doses of treosulfan to myeloablative busulfan are limited. Thus, we compared outcomes between FT14 (fludarabine 150/160 mg/m² and treosulfan 42 g/m², or FT14) over FB4 (fludarabine 150/160 mg/m² and busulfan 12.8 mg/kg). We retrospectively studied patients from European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation registry: a) adults diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), b) recipients of first allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) from unrelated or sibling donor (2010-2020), c) HSCT at first or second complete remission, d) conditioning with FT14 or FB4. FT14 recipients (n = 678) were older, with higher rates of secondary AML, unrelated donors, peripheral blood grafts, and adverse cytogenetics, but lower percentage of female donor to male recipient compared to FB4 (n = 2025). Analysis was stratified on age. In patients aged < 55 years, FT14 was associated with higher relapse incidence (RI) and lower Leukemia-Free Survival (LFS). In patients aged≥55 years, acute GVHD CI was higher in FB4, without significant differences in other outcomes. Although FT14 has been used for higher-risk HSCT patients, our large real-world multicenter study suggests that FB4 is associated with better outcomes compared to FT14 in younger patients.

Treosulfan compared with reduced-intensity busulfan improves allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation outcomes of older acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome patients: Final analysis of a prospective randomized trial

The phase III study was designed to compare event-free survival (EFS) after treosulfan-based conditioning with a widely applied reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) busulfan regimen in older or comorbid patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). A previously reported confirmatory interim analysis of the randomized clinical study including 476 patients demonstrated statistically significant noninferiority for treosulfan with clinically meaningful improvement in EFS. Here, the final study results and pre-specified subgroup analyses of all 570 randomized patients with completed longer-term follow-up are presented. Patients presenting HCT-specific comorbidity index >2 or aged ≥50 years were randomly assigned (1:1) to intravenous (IV) fludarabine with either treosulfan (30 g/m² IV) or busulfan (6.4 mg/kg IV) after stratification by disease risk group, donor type, and participating institution. The primary endpoint was EFS with disease recurrence, graft failure, or death from any cause as events. EFS of patients (median age 60 years) was superior after treosulfan compared to RIC busulfan: 36-months-EFS rate 59.5% (95% CI, 52.2-66.1) vs. 49.7% (95% CI, 43.3-55.7) with a hazard ratio (HR) of 0.64 (95% CI, 0.49-0.84), p = 0.0006. Likewise, overall survival (OS) with treosulfan was superior compared to busulfan: 36-month-OS rate 66.8% vs. 56.3%; HR 0.64 (95% CI, 0.48-0.87), p = 0.0037. Post hoc analyses revealed that these differences were consistent with the confirmatory interim analysis, and thereby the treosulfan regimen appears particularly suitable for older AML and MDS patients.

Treosulfan plus fludarabine versus TEAM as conditioning treatment before autologous stem cell transplantation for B-cell Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Conditioning with treosulfan and fludarabine (Treo/Flu) has been proven to be feasible and efficient in several types of malignancies before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). Given its favorable reduced toxicity profile, we introduced Treo/Flu as conditioning before autologous HSCT (auto-HSCT) in patients with B-cell Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Treo/Flu in comparison to TEAM. Fifty-seven patients with NHL received auto-HSCT after conditioning with either Treo/Flu (n = 22) or TEAM (n = 35). All patients achieved sustained engraftment. PFS, EFS and OS were not significant in both groups. Of note is that patients in the Treo/Flu group were less dependent on thrombocyte transfusions (p = 0.0082), significantly older (in median 11 years, p < 0.0001) and suffered less frequently from infectious complications (p = 0.0105), mucositis and stomatitis (p < 0.0001). This study is the first to present efficacy, feasibility, and safety of conditioning with Treo/Flu preceding auto-HSCT in patients with NHL. Since it demonstrated a lack of significant difference in comparison to TEAM conditioning it might be a valuable alternative especially in elderly patients with B-cell NHL and comorbidities. Further evaluation by prospective clinical trials is warranted.

Addition of a Single Low Dose of Anti T-Lymphocyte Globulin to Post-Transplant Cyclophosphamide after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant: A Pilot Study

Correlation between risk of graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) and CD3⁺ counts within the peripheral blood stem cell graft has recently been reported in the setting of post-transplant cyclophosphamide (PT-Cy). We aimed to investigate the benefit of the addition of a single dose of anti-T lymphocyte globulin (ATLG 5 mg/kg) to PT-Cy in this setting. Starting in 2019, all patients receiving PBSC transplant containing CD3⁺ counts above 300 × 10⁶/kg (study group) received a post-transplant dose of ATLG in addition to standard PT-Cy. The study was designed as a real-life analysis and included all consecutive Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT) recipients according to the above-mentioned inclusion criterion (n = 21), excluding cord blood and bone marrow donors. Using a 1:2 matched-pair analysis, we compared the outcomes with a historical population who received PT-Cy only (control group). We found a delayed platelet engraftment (29% vs. 45% at 30 days, p = 0.03) and a non-significant trend toward higher risk of poor graft function (29% vs. 19%, p = 0.52). The addition of ATLG impacted long-term immune reconstitution on the CD4⁺ subsets, but this did not translate into higher rate of relapse or viral infection. Acute GvHD was not significantly impacted, but 1-year cumulative incidence of chronic GvHD was significantly lower in the study group (15% vs. 41%, p = 0.04). Survival outcomes were comparable. In conclusion PT-Cy and ATLG was overall safe and translated into a low rate of chronic GvHD incidence.

Current status of pretransplant intensive chemotherapy or hypomethylating agents for myelodysplastic syndrome

Myelodysplastic syndrome is a heterogeneous disease with survival probabilities ranging from a few months to several years. Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) remains the only curative treatment. Although access (up to 75 years) and outcome of HCT have improved steadily in recent years, high relapse rates and, to a lower extent, treatment related mortalities are a persisting problem. Reduction of tumor burden before HCT has been shown to decrease relapse incidence and often overall survival (OS) in hematological malignancies but the role of pretransplant therapy in MDS remains controversial. We reviewed the role of pretransplant therapy on outcome in MDS patients. No prospective randomized trial addressed this issue so far. Retrospective studies have shown that pretransplant therapy reduces the risk of relapse, but does not improve survival. In addition, registry studies from diagnosis with standard protocols are proposed in order to exclude patient selection. With the availability of new, more effective and low-toxicity therapies, it may be possible to achieve a significant improvement of OS in the future.

Reduced Intensity Conditioning Followed by Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Is a Good Choice for Acute Myeloid Leukemia and Myelodysplastic Syndrome: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background

Reduced intensity conditioning (RIC) before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) has been reported to have the same overall survival (OS) as myeloablative conditioning (MAC) for patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in complete remission (CR) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). However, results from different studies are conflicting. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis guided by PRISMA 2009 to confirm the efficacy and safety of RIC vs. MAC for AML in CR and MDS.

Methods

We search PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane central, clinical trial registries and related websites, major conference proceedings, and field-related journals from January 1, 1980, to July 1, 2020, for studies comparing RIC with MAC before the first allo-HSCT in patients with AML in CR or MDS. Only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included. OS was the primary endpoint and generic inverse variance method was used to combine hazard ratio (HR) and 95% CI.

Results

We retrieved 7,770 records. Six RCTs with 1,413 participants (711 in RIC, 702 in MAC) were included. RIC had the same OS (HR = 0.95, 95% CI 0.64–1.4, p = 0.80) and cumulative incidence of relapse as MAC (HR = 1.18, 95% CI 0.88–1.59, p = 0.28). Furthermore, RIC significantly reduced non-relapse mortality more than total body irradiation/busulfan-based MAC (HR = 0.53, 95% CI 0.36–0.80, p = 0.002) and had similar long-term OS and graft failure as MAC.

Conclusion

RIC conditioning regimens are recommended as an adequate option of preparative treatment before allo-HSCT for patients with AML in CR or MDS.

Systematic Review Registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=185436.

Combination of treosulfan, fludarabine and cytarabine as conditioning in patients with acute myeloid leukemia, myelodysplastic syndrome and myeloproliferative neoplasms

PURPOSE

Treosulfan and fludarabine (Treo/Flu) were successfully introduced into toxicity-reduced conditioning for SCT. However, the risk of post-SCT relapse remains a matter of concern. We report the results of a novel individual treatment approach with Treo/Flu and cytarabine (Treo/Flu/AraC) conditioning prior to allogeneic SCT in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), or myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN).

METHODS

Seventy-seven patients (median age 54 years) at high risk of disease relapse due to unfavorable cytogenetics or failure to achieve complete remission prior to SCT were included. Median follow-up was 3.2 years.

RESULTS

The 1-, 2- and 3-year RFS rates were 49.4%, 41.7%, and 37.6% and OS rates were 59.3%, 49.3%, and 45.4%, respectively. Cumulative incidence of NRM was 10% at 100 days, 18.8% at 1 year and 20.1% at 2 years. The cumulative incidence of relapse increased from 31% at 1 year to 38.5% after 3 years. The cumulative incidences of engraftment, chimerism, graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) and toxicities were acceptable and comparable with similar patients conditioned with Treo/Flu or FLAMSA-RIC.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Treo/Flu/AraC provides tolerable, feasible, and effective conditioning for patients with AML, MDS or MPN, even in advanced disease states. The incidence of NRM and relapse is acceptable in this heavily pre-treated population with high-risk disease. Future research will aim to confirm these initial findings and include a larger number of participants in a prospective trial.

Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation in patients with myelodysplastic syndrome using treosulfan based compared to other reduced-intensity or myeloablative conditioning regimens. A report of the chronic malignancies working party of the EBMT

Allogeneic haematopoietic-cell transplantation (allo-HCT) is a potentially curative therapy for high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). Reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) is usually associated with lower non-relapse mortality (NRM), higher relapse rate and similar overall-survival (OS) as myeloablative-conditioning (MAC). Fludarabine/treosulfan (FT) is a reduced-toxicity regimen with intense anti-leukaemia activity and a favourable toxicity profile. We investigated post-transplant outcomes in 1722 MDS patients following allo-HCT with FT (n = 367), RIC (n = 687) or MAC (n = 668). FT and RIC recipients were older than MAC recipients, median age 59, 59 and 51 years, respectively (P < 0·001) but other disease characteristics were similar. The median follow-up was 64 months (1-171). Five-year relapse rates were 25% (21-30), 38% (34-42) and 25% (22-29), after FT, RIC and MAC, respectively, (P < 0·001). NRM was 30% (25-35), 27% (23-30) and 34% (31-38, P = 0·008), respectively. Five-year OS was 50% (44-55), 43% (38-47), and 43% (39-47), respectively (P = 0·03). In multivariate analysis, FT was associated with a lower risk of relapse (HR 0·55, P < 0·001) and better OS (HR 0·72, P = 0·01). MAC was associated with higher NRM (HR 1·44, P = 0·001). In conclusion, FT is associated with similar low relapse rates as MAC and similar low NRM as RIC, resulting in improved OS. FT may be the preferred regimen for allo-HCT in MDS.

Survival Advantage of Treosulfan Plus Fludarabine Before Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for Older or Comorbid Patients With Myeloid Malignancies

We have previously shown an advantage of a myeloablative conditioning regimen with reduced toxicity (Fludarabine 150 mg/m², Treosulfan 42 g/m², FluTreo) compared to a reduced-intensity regimen. We aimed to determine long-term safety and efficacy of FluTreo. We prospectively studied consecutive patients who received FluTreo in our center (2014-2019) on the basis of age (≥50 years), hematopoietic cell transplantation comorbidity index (HCT-CI) ≥2, or both. FluTreo recipients were then compared to a historical control group. We studied 68 FluTreo recipients, with a median age of 58.5 years and HCT-CI of 3. We calculated cumulative incidence (CI) of acute (grade 2-4) and moderate/severe chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) (29.9% and 25%, respectively). The 3-year CI of treatment-related mortality was 19.1%, associated only with acute GVHD (P < .001). With a median follow-up of 27.3 (range 5.7-84.5) months in surviving patients, the 3-year overall survival (OS) was 56.6%, and disease-free survival (DFS) was 54.9%. Median survival has not yet been reached. Among pretransplantation and transplantation factors, only HCT-CI was associated with DFS and OS (P = .022 and P = .043, respectively). FluTreo recipients aged ≥50 with HCT-CI ≤ 2 had favorable DFS and OS compared with patients aged ≥50 with HCT-CI ≤2 after myeloablative conditioning. Our real-world study confirms that HCT with FluTreo expands the transplant population with favorable outcomes compared to previously used conditions. The choice of HCT in patients of a rather older age and comorbidity index needs to be revisited.

Treosulfan-based conditioning is feasible and effective for cord blood recipients: a phase 2 multicenter study

Although the use of treosulfan (TREO) in conventional donor hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) has been extensively evaluated, its use in cord blood transplantation (CBT) for hematologic malignancies has not been reported. Between March 2009 and October 2019, 130 CBT recipients were enrolled in this prospective multicenter phase 2 study. The conditioning regimen consisted of TREO, fludarabine, and a single fraction of 2 Gy total-body irradiation. Cyclosporine and mycophenolate mofetil were used for graft-versus-host disease prophylaxis. The primary end point was incidence of graft failure (GF), and based on risk of GF, patients were classified as low risk (arm 1, n = 66) and high risk (arm 2, n = 64). The median age was 45 years (range, 0.6-65 years). Disease status included acute leukemias in first complete remission (CR; n = 56), in ≥2 CRs (n = 46), and myelodysplastic (n = 25) and myeloproliferative syndromes (n = 3). Thirty-five patients (27%) had received a prior HCT. One hundred twenty-three patients (95%) engrafted, with neutrophil recovery occurring at a median of 19 days for patients on arm 1 and 20 days for patients on arm 2. The 3-year overall survival, relapse-free survival (RFS), transplant-related mortality, and relapse for the combined groups were 66%, 57%, 18%, and 24%, respectively. Among patients who had a prior HCT, RFS at 3 years was 48%. No significant differences in clinical outcomes were seen between the 2 arms. Our results demonstrate that TREO-based conditioning for CBT recipients is safe and effective in promoting CB engraftment with favorable clinical outcomes. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT00796068.

Long-Term Outcomes of Treosulfan- vs. Busulfan-Based Conditioning Regimen for Patients With Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Acute Myeloid Leukemia Before Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Many studies aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of treosulfan-based conditioning regimens for allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) compared with other regimens, but different outcomes were reported across studies.

Aim

To determine the long-term survival outcomes of treosulfan-based vs. busulfan-based conditioning regimens in myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS)/acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients.

Methods

PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane library were searched for studies published prior to December 6, 2019. The fixed-effects model was applied for overall survival (OS), leukemia-free survival (LFS), non-relapse mortality (NRM), acute and chronic graft versus host disease (GvHD). Relapse incidence (RI) was pooled by the use of the random-effects model.

Results

Six studies were included (3,982 patients; range, 57-1,956). The pooled HR for OS favored treosulfan (HR=0.80, 95%CI: 0.71-0.90). There was no significant difference in NRM between the two regimens (HR=0.84, 95%CI=0.71-1.01). There was no significant difference in LFS between the two regimens (HR=0.98, 95%CI=0.87-1.12). Treosulfan-based regimens showed a lower risk of aGvHD (HR=0.70, 95%CI=0.59-0.82), but there was no difference for cGvHD (HR=0.94, 95%CI=0.81-1.09). There was no significant difference in RI between the two regimens (HR=0.96, 95%CI=0.71-1.31). There was no publication bias among these studies.

Conclusion

The current meta-analysis determined that treosulfan-based conditioning regimens could improve the OS in patients with MDS and AML, with lower acute graft-versus-host disease incidence, compared with busulfan-based regimens.

Acute toxicity and outcome among pediatric allogeneic hematopoietic transplant patients conditioned with treosulfan-based regimens

Treosulfan-based regimens constitute a feasible and increasingly used, but still myeloablative, conditioning in pediatric allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). We retrospectively analyzed the acute toxicity and outcome of all consecutive (2004-2015) pediatric HSCT patients prepared for HSCT with treosulfan in a single-center setting. We included HSCTs performed for both nonmalignant (n = 23) and malignant diseases (n = 11). The controls were patients with nonmalignant diseases or hematological malignancies conditioned with cyclophosphamide (Cy)-total body irradiation (TBI)-based (39 patients) or busulfan-based regimens (11 patients). The major toxicities of the treosulfan-based regimens were limited to oral mucosa and skin. 50% of the patients needed IV morphine for severe mucositis compared to 31% in patients conditioned with Cy-TBI (P = 0.02). Other toxicities were rare. The disease-free survival (DFS) of patients transplanted for nonmalignant disorders was 88.9 ± 7.5% at 2 years. The event-free survival (EFS) at 2 years in this small cohort for those with a malignant disease and a treosulfan-based conditioning was 54.5 ± 1.5%. We conclude that a treosulfan-based conditioning regimen gives excellent DFS in pediatric HSCT performed for a nonmalignant disorder but with substantial mucosal toxicity. In a malignant disorder a treosulfan-based regimen looks promising but larger, preferably randomized, studies are needed to prove efficacy.

Myelodysplastic syndromes: moving towards personalized management

The myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) share their origin in the hematopoietic stem cell but have otherwise very heterogeneous biological and genetic characteristics. Clinical features are dominated by cytopenia and a substantial risk for progression to acute myeloid leukemia. According to the World Health Organization, MDS is defined by cytopenia, bone marrow dysplasia and certain karyotypic abnormalities. The understanding of disease pathogenesis has undergone major development with the implementation of next-generation sequencing and a closer integration of morphology, cytogenetics and molecular genetics is currently paving the way for improved classification and prognostication. True precision medicine is still in the future for MDS and the development of novel therapeutic compounds with a propensity to markedly change patients' outcome lags behind that for many other blood cancers. Treatment of higher-risk MDS is dominated by monotherapy with hypomethylating agents but novel combinations are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. Agents that stimulate erythropoiesis continue to be first-line treatment for the anemia of lower-risk MDS but luspatercept has shown promise as second-line therapy for sideroblastic MDS and lenalidomide is an established second-line treatment for del(5q) lower-risk MDS. The only potentially curative option for MDS is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, until recently associated with a relatively high risk of transplant-related mortality and relapse. However, recent studies show increased cure rates due to better tools to target the malignant clone with less toxicity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current status of the clinical evaluation, biology and therapeutic interventions for this spectrum of disorders.

Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria: Multicenter Analysis by the Polish Adult Leukemia Group

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is the sole potential cure for paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH); however, the data on its utility in PNH are limited. This retrospective analysis of patients with PNH who underwent allo-HSCT in 11 Polish centers between 2002 and 2016 comprised 78 patients with PHN, including 27 with classic PNH (cPNH) and 51 with bone marrow failure-associated PNH (BMF/PNH). The cohort was 59% male, with a median age of 29 years (range, 12 to 65 years). There was a history of thrombosis in 12% and a history of hemolysis in 81%, and 92% required erythrocyte transfusions before undergoing allo-HSCT. No patient received eculizumab, and 26% received immunosuppressive treatment. The median time from diagnosis to allo-HSCT was 12 months (range, 1 to 127 months). Almost all patients (94%) received reduced-toxicity conditioning, 66% with treosulfan. The stem cell source was peripheral blood in 72% and an identical sibling donor in 24%. Engraftment occurred in 96% of the patients. With a median follow-up of 5.1 years in patients with cPNH and 3.2 years in patients with BMF/PNH, 3-year overall survival (OS) was 88.9% in the former and 85.1% in the latter (P = not significant [NS]). The 3-year OS for patients with/without thrombosis was 50%/92% (P = NS) in the cPNH group and 83.3%/85.3% (P = NS) in the BMF/PNH group. The 3-year OS for in the BMF/PNH patients with/without hemolysis was 93.9%/62.9% (hazard ratio, .13; P = .016). No other factors impacted OS. After allo-HSCT, the frequency of the PNH clone was reduced to 0%, <1%, and <2.4% in 48%, 48%, and 4% of cPNH patients and in 84%, 11%, and 5% of BMF/PNH patients, respectively. The frequency of acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) grade II-IV was 23%, and the cumulative 1-year incidence of extensive chronic GVHD was 10.8% in the BMF/PNH group and 3.7% in the cPNH group. Allo-HSCT is a valid option for PNH patients, effectively eliminating the PNH clone with satisfactory overall survival and acceptable toxicity. Reduced-toxicity conditioning with treosulfan is effective and safe in patients with cPNH and BMF/PNH.

Treosulfan-fludarabine-thiotepa-based conditioning treatment before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for pediatric patients with hematological malignancies

Treosulfan-based conditioning prior to allogeneic transplantation has been shown to have myeloablative, immunosuppressive, and antineoplastic effects associated with reduced non-relapse mortality (NRM) in adults. Therefore, we prospectively evaluated the safety and efficacy of treosulfan-based conditioning in children with hematological malignancies in this phase II trial. Overall, 65 children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (35.4%), acute myeloid leukemia (44.6%), myelodysplastic syndrome (15.4%), or juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (4.6%) received treosulfan intravenously at a dose of 10 mg/m²/day (7.7%), 12 g/m²/day (35.4%), or 14 g/m²/day (56.9%) according to their individual body surface area in combination with fludarabine and thiotepa. The incidence of complete donor chimerism at day +28 was 98.4% with no primary and only one secondary graft failure. At 36 months, NRM was only 3.1%, while relapse incidence was 21.7%, and overall survival was 83.0%. The cumulative incidence of acute graft-vs.-host disease was 45.3% for grades I–IV and 26.6% for grades II–IV. At 36 months, 25.8% overall and 19.4% moderate/severe chronic graft-vs.-host disease were reported. These data confirm the safe and effective use of treosulfan-based conditioning in pediatric patients with hematological malignancies. Therefore, treosulfan/fludarabine/thiotepa can be recommended for myeloablative conditioning in children with hematological malignancies.

High leukemia-free survival after TBI-based conditioning and mycophenolate mofetil-containing immunosuppression in patients allografted for chronic myelomonocytic leukemia: a single-center experience

This retrospective single-center analysis studied the impact of the conditioning and the graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis on outcome in unselected patients allografted for chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) secondary to documented prior CMML. A total of 44 patients (median age 61 years) allografted between 2002 and 2019 in our institution were analyzed. Fifteen patients had secondary AML. The conditioning regimen was fractionated 6-8 Gy total body irradiation (TBI) in combination with fludarabine in 33 (75%) patients. Eleven patients (25%) received alkylator-based conditioning therapy without TBI. For GVHD prophylaxis, a calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) backbone in combination with methotrexate (MTX) or mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) was applied in 21 and 23 patients, respectively. All patients allografted from an unrelated donor (UD) received antithymocyte globuline. In univariate analysis of the entire cohort, TBI-based conditioning and MMF-containing immunosuppression were associated with improved leukemia-free survival (LFS, HR 0.16, P < 0.001 and HR 0.41, P = 0.030, respectively). After stratification according to conditioning and GVHD prophylaxis into four groups (TBI-MMF [n = 17], TBI-MTX [n = 16], alkylator-MMF [n = 6], alkylator-MTX [n = 5]), TBI-MMF was associated with improved overall survival (OS) and LFS (P = 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively). Patient and disease characteristics did not differ between the groups. The associations of TBI-based conditioning and MMF with prolonged LFS were observed across the CMML (n = 29), secondary AML (n = 15), and UD allograft (n = 34) subgroups. In summary, our study suggests that allografting based on intermediate-dose TBI conditioning and MMF-containing GVHD prophylaxis is associated with increased disease control in CMML. Larger (registry-based) studies are warranted to confirm our findings.

Treosulfan, Fludarabine, and Low-Dose Total Body Irradiation for Children and Young Adults with Acute Myeloid Leukemia or Myelodysplastic Syndrome Undergoing Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation: Prospective Phase II Trial of the Pediatric Blood and Marrow Transplant Consortium

This multicenter study evaluated a treosulfan-based regimen in children and young adults with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT). Forty patients with median age 11 years (range, 1 to 19) underwent allogeneic HCT for AML in first (n = 18), second (n = 11), and third or greater remission (n = 3) or MDS (n = 8) using bone marrow (n = 25), peripheral blood stem cells (n = 5), or cord blood (n = 9). The regimen consisted of body surface area (BSA)-based treosulfan 10 g/m²/day (BSA ≤ .5 m²), 12 g/m²/day (BSA > .5 to 1.0 m²), or 14 g/m²/day (BSA > 1.0 m²) on days -6 to -4; fludarabine 30 mg/m²/day on days -6 to -2; and a single fraction of 200 cGy total body irradiation on day -1. Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis included tacrolimus and methotrexate for marrow and peripheral blood stem cell and cyclosporine/mycophenolate mofetil for cord blood. One-year overall survival, disease-free survival, and nonrelapse mortality were 80%, 73%, and 3%, respectively. One-year relapse was 38% for AML and 13% for MDS. No serious organ toxicities were observed. All 37 assessable patients engrafted. Cumulative incidences of grades II to IV acute GVHD and chronic GVHD were 22% and 40%, respectively. BSA-based treosulfan dosing resulted in predictable area under the curve and maximum concentration, which is required for dosing without measuring individual pharmacokinetic parameters. Observed differences in pharmacokinetics did not impact disease control or regimen toxicity. This BSA-based treosulfan regimen resulted in excellent engraftment and disease-free survival and minimal toxicity and transplant-related mortality (3%) in children and young adults with AML and MDS.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Treosulfan in Patients With Thalassemia Major Undergoing Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

A treosulfan (Treo)-based conditioning regimen prior to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) has been successfully used in treating hematological malignant and nonmalignant diseases. We report Treo pharmacokinetics (PK) in patients with thalassemia major undergoing HSCT (n = 87), receiving Treo at a dose of 14 g/m² /day. Median Treo AUC and clearance (CL) was 1,326 mg*h/L and 10.8 L/h/m² , respectively. There was wide interindividual variability in Treo AUC and CL (64 and 68%) which was not explained by any of the variables tested. None of the Treo PK parameters were significantly associated with graft rejection or toxicity; however, Treo CL <7.97 L/h/m² was significantly associated with poor overall (hazard ratio (HR) 2.7, confidence interval (CI) (1.09-6.76), P = 0.032) and event-free survival (HR 2.4, CI (0.98-5.73), P = 0.055). Further studies in a larger cohort are warranted to identify the factors explaining the variation in Treo PK as well as to establish a therapeutic range of Treo for targeted dose adjustment to improve HSCT outcome.

Intravenous Busulfan Compared with Treosulfan-Based Conditioning for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Study on Behalf of the Acute Leukemia Working Party of European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation

Dose intensity of the conditioning regimen has significant impact on the outcomes after stem cell transplantation (SCT) for acute myeloid leukemia. Most studies have shown more relapse, less nonrelapse mortality (NRM), and similar overall survival after reduced-intensity and myeloablative conditioning. There are limited data on the dose equivalence and expected outcomes of treosulfan-based compared with busulfan-based conditioning. We compared SCT outcomes after fludarabine with either intravenous busulfan at a myeloablative dose (FB4, 12.8 mg/kg, n = 1265) or a reduced dose (FB2, 6.4 mg/kg, n = 1456) or treosulfan at 42 g/m² (FT14, n = 403) or 36 g/m² (FT12, n = 168). Median patient age was 48, 60, 57, and 60 years in the FB4, FB2, FT14, and FT12 groups, respectively (P < .0001). Two-year overall survival was 58%, 53%, 53%, and 51%, respectively (P = .25). Multivariate analysis identified advanced age, advanced disease status, and secondary leukemia to be associated with worse survival. Relapse rate was 30%, 35%, 34%, and 40%, respectively. Relapse was more common after FB2, advanced age and disease status, secondary leukemia, and sibling donors. NRM was 17%, 18%, 21%, and 16%, respectively. NRM was least common after FT12 and more common with advanced age and disease status and unrelated donors. Treosulfan-based regimens were associated with lower rates of graft-versus-host disease. There was no difference in any outcome among patients in first complete remission at transplantation. However, there was better survival with treosulfan-based conditioning in advanced leukemia. In conclusion, survival is determined mostly by disease biology and is similar after various regimens. Treosulfan-based conditioning is more similar to myeloablative than to reduced-intensity conditioning but can be administered safely in older patients, with lower rates of graft-versus-host disease and possibly better outcomes in patients with active leukemia.

Missing HLA C group 1 ligand in patients with AML and MDS is associated with reduced risk of relapse and better survival after allogeneic stem cell transplantation with fludarabine and treosulfan reduced toxicity conditioning

Reduced-toxicity conditioning with fludarabine and treosulfan is a dose-intensive regimen with enhanced anti-leukemia effect and acceptable toxicity in AML/MDS. HLA-C regulates natural-killer (NK) cell function by inhibiting Killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) and is divided into C1 and C2 epitopes. The missing-ligand theory suggests that missing recipient KIR ligands drives NK-alloreactivity after SCT, in the absence of HLA-mismatch by activating unlicensed donor NK cells. We analyzed SCT outcomes in 203 patients with AML/MDS, median age 58 years, given SCT from matched-siblings (n = 97) or matched-unrelated donors (n = 106), using two treosulfan doses (total 36 or 42 g/m² ). 34% expressed one HLA-C group 1 allele (C1C1), 19% one HLA-C group 2 allele (C2C2), and 48% both KIR ligands (C1C2). Median follow-up was 48 months. 5-year relapse, nonrelapse mortality (NRM) and leukemia-free survival (LFS) rates were 38%, 27%, and 36%, respectively. Relapse rates were 43%, 45%, and 26% in patients expressing C1C1, C1C2, and C2C2 ligands, respectively (P = .03). Multivariate-analysis identified chemo-refractory disease (HR 3.1, P = .003), poor cytogenetics (HR 1.7, P = .08), female donor to male recipient (HR 0.4, P = .01) and C2C2 ligands (HR 0.4, P = .04) as independent factors predicting relapse. HLA-C ligands were not associated with GVHD or NRM. LFS was 33%, 30%, and 46%, respectively (P = .07). Chemorefractory disease (HR 3.1, P = .0004) and C2C2 group ligand (HR 0.6, P = .06) independently predicted LFS. Treosulfan dose did not predict any SCT outcome. In conclusion, missing HLA-C group 1 ligand is associated with reduced relapse risk, similar NRM and improved LFS, after HLA-matched SCT with treosulfan conditioning in AML/MDS.

Disposition of treosulfan and its active monoepoxide in a bone marrow, liver, lungs, brain, and muscle: Studies in a rat model with clinical relevance

For the recent years, the application of treosulfan (TREO)-based conditioning prior to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) has been increasing as an alternative to busulfan-based therapy, especially for patients presenting high risk of developing hepato-, pulmo-, and neurotoxicity. So far, the penetration of TREO and its epoxy-derivatives into central nervous system and aqueous humor of the eye has been investigated. However, lacking knowledge on the compounds distribution into the other key tissues precludes comprehensive understanding and assessment of TREO clinical efficacy and toxicity. In this paper, the disposition of TREO and its active monoepoxide (S,S-EBDM) in a bone marrow, liver, lungs, brain, and quadriceps femoris was studied in an animal model. Male and female adult Wistar rats (n=48/48) received an intraperitoneal injection of TREO at the dose of 500mg/kg b.w. Concentrations of TREO and S,S-EBDM in tissues were determined with a validated HPLC-MS/MS method. Pharmacokinetic calculations were performed in WinNonlin using a noncompartmental analysis. Mean values of the maximal concentrations of TREO and S,S-EBDM in the organs were sex-independent and ranged from 61 to 1650μM and 25-105μM, respectively. No quantifiable levels of S,S-EBDM were found in the liver. Average tissue/plasma area under the curve (AUC) ratio for unbound TREO increased in the sequence: brain (0.10)<muscle (0.77)<bone marrow=lungs (0.82)<liver (0.96). The tissue/plasma AUC ratio for unbound S,S-EBDM changed as follows: brain (0.35)<lungs (0.50)<bone marrow (0.75)<muscle (1.14). Elimination half-lives of the compounds in plasma and the organs ranged from 0.7h to 2.1h. Scaling of the obtained AUCs of TREO and S,S-EBDM and the literature AUCs of busulfan to concentrations of the drugs in HSCT patients' plasma show that TREO reaches much higher levels in the organs than busulfan. Nonetheless, low S,S-EBDM exposure in a liver, lungs, and brain, even compared with busulfan, may contribute to relatively low organ toxicity of TREO-based conditioning regimens. Similarity of the scaled bone marrow AUCs of S,S-EBDM and busulfan corresponds to comparable myeloablative potency of TREO- and busulfan-based conditioning. The biological half-lives of TREO and S,S-EBDM in plasma and the studied organs indicate that 48h lag time following administration of the last dose of TREO to HSCT patients is sufficient to protect the transplanted stem cells from the compounds' exposure.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for MDS and CMML: recommendations from an international expert panel

An international expert panel, active within the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation, European LeukemiaNet, Blood and Marrow Transplant Clinical Trial Group, and the International Myelodysplastic Syndromes Foundation developed recommendations for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML). Disease risks scored according to the revised International Prognostic Scoring System (IPSS-R) and presence of comorbidity graded according to the HCT Comorbidity Index (HCT-CI) were recognized as relevant clinical variables for HSCT eligibility. Fit patients with higher-risk IPSS-R and those with lower-risk IPSS-R with poor-risk genetic features, profound cytopenias, and high transfusion burden are candidates for HSCT. Patients with a very high MDS transplantation risk score, based on combination of advanced age, high HCT-CI, very poor-risk cytogenetic and molecular features, and high IPSS-R score have a low chance of cure with standard HSCT and consideration should be given to treating these patients in investigational studies. Cytoreductive therapy prior to HSCT is advised for patients with ≥10% bone marrow myeloblasts. Evidence from prospective randomized clinical trials does not provide support for specific recommendations on the optimal high intensity conditioning regimen. For patients with contraindications to high-intensity preparative regimens, reduced intensity conditioning should be considered. Optimal timing of HSCT requires careful evaluation of the available effective nontransplant strategies. Prophylactic donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI) strategies are recommended in patients at high risk of relapse after HSCT. Immune modulation by DLI strategies or second HSCT is advised if relapse occurs beyond 6 months after HSCT.

Transplantation for myelodysplastic syndromes: who, when, and which conditioning regimens

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HCT) is the only curative therapy for myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). Broad application is hindered by high risks of transplant-related morbidity and mortality, especially in the older age range represented by the MDS population. However, recent advances in strategies to minimize regimen-related toxicity make HCT a viable option for many more patients. Appropriate selection of patients involves consideration of patient factors, including use of geriatric assessment tools and comorbidity scales, that predict risks of regimen-related toxicity as well as disease factors, including genetic markers, which predict survival with both non-HCT and HCT therapy. Optimal timing of HCT for fit patients must consider MDS risk scores and life-years to be gained, with earlier transplantation indicated for patients with intermediate-2 and high-risk disease but judicious delay for lower risk patients. Selection of suitable conditioning regimens must balance risks of toxicity with opportunity for maximum disease control.

Treosulfan-based conditioning regimen for allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation in children with sickle cell disease

Although allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) still represents the only consolidated possibility of cure for sickle cell disease (SCD) patients, its use has been limited by the risk of morbidity and mortality associated with conventional myeloablative therapy. The introduction of treosulfan to replace busulfan in conditioning regimens has recently been explored by virtue of its lower toxicity profile. We report our experience with a treosulfan/thiotepa/fludarabine conditioning for human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-matched sibling or unrelated donor-HSCT in 15 children with SCD, and compare patient outcomes with those of a historical cohort (15 patients) given a busulfan-based regimen. Engraftment was achieved in 28 out of 30 patients (93%), with one case of graft failure in either group. The conditioning regimen was well tolerated in both groups, with no cases of grade III-IV regimen-related toxicity. The 7-year overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) for the whole cohort were 100% and 93%, respectively, with a 93% DFS in both busulfan and treosulfan groups. No SCD-related adverse events occurred after engraftment in patients with complete or mixed donor chimerism. This retrospective analysis suggests that a treosulfan-based conditioning regimen is able to ensure engraftment with excellent OS/DFS and low regimen-related toxicity in patients with SCD.

Treatment strategies in patients with AML or high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome relapsed after Allo-SCT

Non-relapse mortality after Allo-SCT has significantly decreased over the last years. Nevertheless, relapse remains a major cause for post SCT mortality in patients with AML and high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). In this retrospective single-center analysis, we have analyzed the treatment outcomes of 108 patients with AML or MDS, who relapsed after Allo-SCT. Seventy of these patients (65%) were treated with salvage therapies containing chemotherapy alone, allogeneic cell-based treatment or the combination of both. Thirty-eight patients (35%) received palliative treatment. Median OS after diagnosis of relapse was 130 days. Compared with patients who received chemotherapy alone, response to salvage therapy was significantly improved in patients treated with a combination of chemo- and allogeneic cell-based therapy (CR rate 57% vs 13%, P=0.002). Among risk factors concerning pretreatment characteristics, disease status before first Allo-SCT, and details of transplantation, only the time interval from Allo-SCT to relapse was an independent predictor of response to salvage therapy and OS. These data confirmed that time to relapse after transplantation is an important prognostic factor. Up to now, only patients eligible for treatment regimens containing allogeneic cell-based interventions achieved relevant response rates.

Transplant for MDS: challenges and emerging strategies

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is the only curative treatment for myelodysplastic syndrome. Major improvements in the field of allogeneic stem cell transplantation have made it a better tolerated treatment that can be offered to older patients and patients with co-morbidities. However, treatment related toxicities, graft versus host disease, infectious complications and relapse remain major problems post transplant. With better understanding of disease biology and prognosis and with different types of conditioning regimens as well as different graft sources, a transplant strategy should be tailored to the individual host to maximize the benefits of this procedure.

Treosulfan-based conditioning and hematopoietic cell transplantation for nonmalignant diseases: a prospective multicenter trial

Hematopoietic cell transplantation is an effective treatment for patients with nonmalignant diseases and for many is the only known cure. Conventional myeloablative regimens have been associated with unacceptably high early transplant-related mortality (TRM), particularly in patients with comorbid conditions. This prospective multicenter trial was designed to determine the safety and engraftment efficacy of treosulfan-based conditioning in patients with nonmalignant diseases. Thirty-one patients received HLA-matched related (n = 4) or unrelated (n = 27) grafts after conditioning with treosulfan (total dose, 42 g/m(2)), fludarabine (total dose, 150 mg/m(2)), ± thymoglobulin (6 mg/kg; n = 22). Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis consisted of tacrolimus and methotrexate. All patients engrafted. Day-100 TRM was 0%. With a median follow-up of 2 years, the 2-year survival was 90%. Three patients died of GVHD, recurrent hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and a surgical complication, respectively. The cumulative incidences of grades II to IV and III to IV acute GVHD at day 100 and chronic GVHD at 2 years were 62%, 10%, and 21%, respectively. Patients who received thymoglobulin had a significantly lower incidence of grades III to IV acute GVHD (0% versus 33%; P = .005). These results indicate that the combination of treosulfan, fludarabine, and thymoglobulin is effective at establishing donor engraftment with low toxicity and improved survival in patients with nonmalignant diseases and support the need for future disease-specific clinical trials.

Treosulfan, fludarabine, and 2-Gy total body irradiation followed by allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation in patients with myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia

Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) offers curative therapy for many patients with myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) or acute myeloid leukemia (AML). However, post-HCT relapse remains a major problem, particularly in patients with high-risk cytogenetics. In this prospective phase II trial, we assessed the efficacy and toxicity of treosulfan, fludarabine, and 2 Gy total body irradiation (TBI) as conditioning for allogeneic HCT in patients with MDS or AML. Ninety-six patients with MDS (n = 36: 15 refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia, 10 refractory anemia with excess blasts type 1, 10 refractory anemia with excess blasts type 2, 1 chronic myelomonocytic leukemia type 1) or AML (n = 60: 35 first complete remission [CR], 18 second CR, 3 advanced CR, 4 refractory relapse) were enrolled; median age was 51 (range, 1 to 60) years. Twelve patients had undergone a prior HCT with high-intensity conditioning. Patients received 14 g/m(2)/day treosulfan i.v. on days -6 to -4, 30 mg/m(2)/day fludarabine i.v. on days -6 to -2, and 2 Gy TBI on day 0, followed by infusion of hematopoietic cells from related (n = 27) or unrelated (n = 69) donors. Graft-versus-host disease prophylaxis consisted of tacrolimus and methotrexate. With a median follow-up of 30 months, the 2-year overall survival (OS), relapse incidence, and nonrelapse mortality were 73%, 27%, and 8%, respectively. The incidences of grades II to IV (III to IV) acute and chronic graft-versus-host disease were 59% (10%) and 47%, respectively. Two-year OS was not significantly different between MDS patients with poor-risk and good/intermediate-risk cytogenetics (69% and 85%, respectively) or between AML patients with unfavorable and favorable/intermediate-risk cytogenetics (64% and 76%, respectively). In AML patients, minimal residual disease (MRD; n = 10) at the time of HCT predicted higher relapse incidence (70% versus 18%) and lower OS (41% versus 79%) at 2 years, when compared with patients without MRD. In conclusion, treosulfan, fludarabine, and low-dose TBI provided effective conditioning for allogeneic HCT in patients with MDS or AML and resulted in low relapse incidence, regardless of cytogenetic risk. In patients with AML, MRD at the time of HCT remained a risk factor for post-HCT relapse.

Risk-adapted, treosulfan-based therapy with auto- and allo-SCT for relapsed/refractory aggressive NHL: a prospective phase-II trial

Since the outcome of relapsed/refractory aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) is highly variable, a risk-adapted treatment approach was evaluated. After two cycles of DHAP, patients received high-dose treosulfan/etoposide/carboplatinum (TEC) and autologous stem cell rescue. After TEC, low-risk patients with late relapse (>1 year after first CR who achieved CR after DHAP received no further treatment. Patients with late relapse who achieved CR or PR only after TEC underwent a second cycle of TEC. High-risk patients with early relapse/refractory disease received treosulfan/fludarabine followed by allogeneic transplantation. Rituximab was added in patients with B-cell lymphoma (86%). At entry, 36% of all 57 patients had refractory disease, 32% early and 32% late relapse. During DHAP treatment, progression occurred in 32% of patients. Of 33 patients who received TEC, 5 received second TEC and 15 allogeneic transplantation. Main toxicity after TEC was oral mucositis (CTC grades 3 and 4 in 50% and 13%, respectively). In total, 42% patients achieved CR. Median OS was 21.4 months for all patients and 32.6 for those who underwent allogeneic transplantation. International prognostic index (IPI) at study entry was highly discriminative at predicting OS (P<0.0001). Risk-adapted, treosulfan-based therapy with auto- and allo-SCT is feasible. Long-term survival is possible with allogeneic transplantation.

Combination of the Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Comorbidity Index and the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation score allows a better stratification of high-risk patients undergoing reduced-toxicity allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation

This study was conducted to determine whether the integration of the Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Comorbidity Index (HCT-CI) and the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) score would improve individual capacity for stratification of high-risk HCT candidates. A total of 442 consecutive patients receiving an allogeneic HCT after reduced-toxicity conditioning was included. Final HCT-CI and EBMT scores were calculated and validated. Then, patients were grouped into a 6-category new combination model according to the HCT-CI (0, 1 to 2, ≥ 3) and EBMT scores (0 to 3, 4 to 7), and the model's predictive capacity was also evaluated. Median HCT-CI and EBMT scores were 3 and 4, respectively. Increased HCT-CI was associated with higher 4-year nonrelapse mortality (NRM) and lower 4-year overall survival (OS), whereas a high EBMT score was associated with higher 4-year NRM. The HCT-CI showed a trend for a better predictive capacity than the EBMT score (c-statistic .6 versus .54, P = .1). According to the new model, patients within HCT-CI of 0 and HCT-CI of 1 to 2 groups had similar risk of NRM independently of their EBMT score. Within the HCT-CI ≥ 3 group, patients with low EBMT score showed lower NRM (25% versus 40%, P = .04) and a trend to higher OS (52% versus 36%, P = .06) than patients with a high EBMT score. Moreover, patients with HCT-CI ≥ 3 and EBMT score 0 to 3 had similar outcomes than those with HCT-CI of 1 to 2. In conclusion, the combination of HCT-CI and the EBMT score is feasible and might contribute to a better identification of high-risk patients, improving selection of best allogeneic HCT candidates.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for myelodysplastic syndromes

Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT) is the only treatment with curative potential for myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). The availability of SCT has been expanded with the introduction of reduced intensity conditioning for older patients and the use of alternative donors. Treatment-related mortality and relapse have remained major barriers to uniform success and there is a significant need for innovative approaches to improve these outcomes. Encouraging results have been reported for patients who lack a human leukocyte antigen-identical donor with the use of cord blood and haploidentical donors. Improved approaches for patient selection and optimization of the timing of SCT are needed. New prognostic classification schemas identify risk groups for disease outcomes and facilitate decisions with regard to SCT. Patients with intermediate-2 and high-risk disease and those with therapy-related MDS have a poor prognosis with alternative therapies; improved results have been reported with hematopoietic transplantation. The optimum timing for SCT is controversial in the era of hypomethylating agents. Initial conservative management is indicated for patients with low-risk disease. Hematopoietic transplantation remains the only curative treatment for patients with MDS and should be used before patients overtly progress to advanced disease. Failure to respond to hypomethylating agents does not adversely affect the outcome of SCT; these patients might achieve durable remissions with hematopoietic transplantation. Refined prognostic markers are needed to identify poor prognosis patients to guide patient selection for SCT, and novel transplantation approaches are required to reduce the risk of disease relapse and complications of the procedure.