Effects of incubation temperature on the bone development of broilers

Effects of the early incubation temperature on the muscle physiology, meat quality, bone strength and gait score in Ross broilers

1. Modern broiler chickens are among the most efficient livestock in terms of resource requirements and production time. To maintain and improve production efficiency and meat quality and account for welfare problems, early interventions, such as incubation temperature, require investigation2. In this study, Ross 308 broiler eggs were incubated at either 36.5°C or 38.5°C on embryonic days (ED) 4-7. The control group eggs were incubated at a constant temperature of 37.5°C. Musculus pectoralis and musculus gastrocnemius samples were taken for the investigation of muscle physiology, and the tibia was sampled for bone strength analysis from chickens aged 35 and 36 d. In addition, meat quality was analysed and gait scoring was performed.3. The performance of chickens in the 36.5°C group was inferior to those in the other groups up to d 10 post-hatch, but compensatory growth was seen by d 35 of age. Meat quality was unaffected, but significant differences between sexes were observed. Males had lighter meat colour than females. Muscle glycogen and intramuscular fat were unaffected by the incubation temperature, but the muscularis pectoralis and gastrocnemius intramuscular fat contents were greater in males than in females, accompanied by the increased expression of enzymes involved in lipolysis. In the 38.5°C group, males had less bone elasticity than females, and the inverse was observed in the other groups. Gait scores were affected by sex but not incubation temperature.4. The results of this study showed a stronger effect of sex than incubation temperature on broiler muscle physiology, bone strength, performance and meat quality.

Polymelia and concurrent intestinal duplication and cloacal atresia in a broiler chick: case report and literature review

Congenital malformations are a highly diverse group of conditions reported in both humans and animals, characterized by defects in morphogenesis observed at birth. Although most cases are idiopathic, genetic and environmental factors may be involved. The frequency of such conditions varies with species, geographic regions, and the specific malformation involved. In polymelia, supernumerary limbs are attached to different parts of the body. Gastrointestinal duplications are described less frequently and can be associated with polymelia. Cloacal atresia is among the least-reported malformations in avian species, described only once in a kiwi. Here we describe a case with these 3 malformations in a single broiler chick (Gallus gallus domesticus) and provide a literature review about the occurrence of these malformations in birds. The 3-d-old chick also had an unidentified structure projecting from the pygostyle region. We performed clinical, radiographic, and postmortem examinations. The intestinal duplication was identified only during the postmortem evaluation. Detailed descriptions of avian congenital malformations are scarce. Although similar cases have been reported, we retrieved no cases of concurrent polymelia, intestinal duplication, and cloacal atresia in broiler chickens in our literature search, suggesting that the simultaneous occurrence of these conditions has not been reported previously in this species.

Effects of eggshell temperature pattern during incubation on tibia characteristics of broiler chickens at slaughter age

This study was designed to determine effects of eggshell temperature (EST) pattern in week 2 and week 3 of incubation on tibia development of broiler chickens at slaughter age. A total of 468 Ross 308 eggs were incubated at an EST of 37.8°C from incubation day (E) 0 to E7. Thereafter, a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with 2 EST (37.8°C and 38.9°C) from E8 to E14 and 2 EST (36.7°C and 37.8°C) from E15 till hatch was applied. After hatching, chickens were reared until slaughter age with the 4 EST treatments and 8 replicates per treatment. At day 41 and 42, one male chicken per replicate per day was selected, and hock burn and food pad dermatitis were scored. Rotated tibia, tibia dyschondroplasia, epiphyseal plate abnormalities, bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis, and epiphysiolysis were assessed. Tibia weight, length, thickness, head thickness, and robusticity index were determined. X-ray analyses (osseous volume, pore volume, total volume, volume fraction, mineral content, and mineral density) and a 3-point bending test (ultimate strength, yield strength, stiffness, energy to fracture, and elastic modulus) were performed. A high EST (38.9°C) in week 2 of incubation, followed by a normal EST (37.8°C) in week 3 resulted in higher mineral content (P = 0.001), mineral density (P = 0.002), ultimate strength (P = 0.04), yield strength (P = 0.03), and stiffness (P = 0.05) compared with the other 3 EST groups (week 2 × week 3 interaction). A high EST (38.9°C) in week 2 of incubation, regardless of the EST in week 3, resulted in a higher tibia weight (P < 0.001), thickness (P = 0.05), osseous volume (P < 0.001), and total volume (P < 0.001) than a normal EST (37.8°C). It can be concluded that 1.1°C higher EST than normal in week 2 of incubation appears to stimulate tibia morphological, biophysical, and mechanical characteristics of broiler chickens at slaughter age. Additionally, a 1.1°C lower EST in week 3 of incubation appears to have negative effects on tibia characteristics, particularly in interaction with the EST in week 2 of incubation.

Effect of a post-hatch lipopolysaccharide challenge in Turkey poults and ducklings after a primary embryonic heat stress

The effect of embryonic thermal manipulation on the post-hatch immune response to a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge was studied in Pekin ducklings and turkey poults. Commercial duck and turkey eggs were distributed among four treatments: SS-Control (37.5 °C from embryonic day [ED] 1 to 25); SS-LPS (37.5 °C from ED1 to 25 + LPS at D0 [hatch]); HH-LPS (38 °C from ED1 to 25 + LPS at D0; SH-LPS (37.5 °C from ED1 to 10 and 38 °C from ED 11 to 25 + LPS at D0). At ED16 and ED24, the egg shell temperature of the duck and turkey eggs in the HH and SH treatments were higher (P ≤ 0.01) than the SS treatment. Ducklings and poults in the HH treatment had the lowest yolk free body weight at hatch (P ≤ 0.05). At 24, 48, and 72 h post-LPS injection, ducklings and poults in the HH-LPS treatment had significantly reduced BW compared with the SS-Con treatments (P ≤ 0.05). Ducklings and poults in the SH-LPS and HH-LPS treatments had increased plasma heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and lower splenic HSP70 mRNA amounts than the SS-LPS treatments at 24, and 48 h post-challenge (P ≤ 0.05). At 48 and 72 h, macrophage nitric oxide (NO) production in ducklings and poults in the SH-LPS and HH-LPS treatments was lower than in the SS-LPS treatments (P ≤ 0.05). Ducklings and poults in the SH-LPS treatment had increased thymocyte proliferation compared to the SS-LPS treatment at 24, 48 and 72 h (P ≤ 0.05). At 24 h, ducklings in the SH-LPS treatment had increased splenic IL-10 and reduced IFNγ and IL-6 mRNA abundance. However, both ducklings and poults in the HH-LPS treatment had increased IFNγ, and IL-10 mRNA abundance compared to the SS-LPS treatment (P ≤ 0.05). At 48 h, SH-LPS ducklings and poults had lower splenic IL-10 mRNA abundance (P ≤ 0.05) while the HH-LPS treatment resulted in comparable splenic IL-10 mRNA compared to the SS-LPS treatment (P ≥ 0.05). Ducklings and poults in the SH-LPS treatment had increased thymic and splenic CD8⁺/CD4⁺ ratios at 24 h versus the SS-LPS treatment (P ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, embryonic thermal manipulation from ED11-25 increased extracellular HSP70 release, thymocyte proliferation and IL-10 but decreased splenic HSP70 and IFNγ mRNA amounts at 24 h post-LPS injection. This suggests that mild heat stress during the later stages of incubation could potentially prime the embryonic immune system thereby enhances the immune response as earlier than 24 h to eliminate the inflammatory response without affecting the growth performance by increase the extracellular release of HSP70 in both ducklings and poults. Continuous exposure to the small increase in temperature from ED 1-25 (HH) caused an imbalance between pro (IFNγ)- and anti-inflammatory cytokines(IL-10) which affects hatchling responses to an inflammatory challenge and increased mortality. The amount of extracellular HSP70 could potentially play an important role in modulating the immune response against inflammatory challenges.

Early life exposure to triphenyl phosphate: Effects on thyroid function, growth, and resting metabolic rate of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) chicks

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP; CAS # 115-86-6), a commonly used plasticizer and flame retardant, has been reported in wild birds and identified as a potential high-risk chemical. We exposed Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) by in ovo injection, and once hatched, orally each day for 5 days to safflower oil (controls) or TPHP dissolved in vehicle at low (5 ng TPHP/g), mid (50 ng TPHP/g), or high (100 ng TPHP/g) nominal TPHP doses. The low TPHP dose reflected concentrations in wild bird eggs, with mid and high doses 10x and 20x greater to reflect potential increases in environmental TPHP concentrations in the future. Despite no effects on mRNA expression in thyroid-related genes, TPHP exposure enhanced thyroid gland structure in high TPHP males, but in females, suppressed thyroid gland structure and activity (all TPHP females), and circulating free triiodothyronine (high TPHP females only). Consistent with thyroidal changes, and compared to controls, mid and high TPHP chicks experienced significantly reduced resting metabolic rate (≤13%) and growth (≤53%); mid TPHP males and high TPHP females were significantly smaller. The observed thyroidal effects and suppressed growth and metabolic rate of the quail chicks suggest that TPHP may adversely affect the health of wild birds.

Effect of embryonic thermal manipulation on heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) expression and subsequent immune response to post-hatch lipopolysaccharide challenge in Pekin ducklings

During the course of multi-stage incubation, small locational differences in incubation temperature within a machine are not uncommon and so the goal of this study was to study the immune response of ducklings exposed to thermal manipulation during incubation. Commercial Pekin duck eggs (n = 200) were distributed among four treatment: SS-Control (37.5°C from embryonic day [ED] 1 to 25); SS-LPS (37.5°C from ED1 to 25 + LPS at D0 [hatch]); HH-LPS (38°C from ED1 to 25+ LPS at D0); SH-LPS (37.5°C from ED1 to 10 and 38°C from ED 11 to 25 + LPS at D0). At D0, ducklings received a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection. At D1 and D5, the HH-LPS treatment significantly reduced body weight (P ≤ 0.05). At D1 and D3 post-LPS injection, the SH-LPS and HH-LPS treatments significantly reduced splenic and bursal heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), mRNA abundance, and macrophage nitric oxide production compared with the SS-LPS treatment (P ≤ 0.05). At D1, the HH-LPS and SH-LPS treatments had increased splenic IL-10 mRNA and lower MHC I mRNA compared with the SS-LPS treatment (P ≤ 0.05). At D1, the HH-LPS treatment increased splenic IL-6 mRNA and bursal IFNγ mRNA transcription while the SH-LPS treatment reduced splenic IL-6 mRNA compared with the SS-LPS treatment (P ≤ 0.05). The HH-LPS treatment reduced thymocyte proliferation efficiency, while at D1, D3, and D5, the SH-LPS treatment increased thymocyte proliferation efficiency compared with the SS-LPS treatment (P ≤ 0.05). Ducklings in the HH-LPS treatment had a higher splenic CD8+/CD4+ ratio compared to the SS-LPS treatment at D3 post-LPS injection (P ≤ 0.05). In summary, the HH-LPS treatment compromised immunocompetence via decreased NO production and thymocyte proliferation efficiency, while the SH-LPS treatment increased body weight and thymocyte proliferation and reduced IL-6 mRNA abundance. This suggests that an embryonic temperature stress during the latter half of incubation may prime the immune system which may be beneficial during secondary post-hatch inflammatory challenges.

Effect of embryonic thermal manipulation on heat shock protein 70 expression and immune system development in Pekin duck embryos

Two experiments were conducted to study the effects of thermal manipulation on heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) transcription and immune cell characteristics' in Pekin duck embryos. In experiments I and II, fertile duck eggs were incubated at either a standard (S; 37°C) or high (H; 38.0°C) temperature from embryonic day (ED) 1 to 10. At ED11, half the eggs incubated at 37.5°C or 38.0°C were either kept at 37.5°C (SS) or 38.0°C (HH) respectively, or moved to the opposite incubator/temperature of either 38.0°C (SH) or 37.5°C (HS). Beginning on ED 21, all eggs (embryos) were incubated at 37.5°C. In experiments I and II, the mean egg shell temperature (EST) of eggs incubated at 38.0°C was higher than that from 37.5°C at ED10 (P < 0.01). In both experiments, the yolk free wet embryo body weight (YFWEBW) of embryos from the HS treatment was increased while that in the HH treatments was decreased compared with the SS treatment at ED25 (P < 0.01). In experiment II, embryos from the HH treatment had increased HSP70 mRNA compared with the SS treatment in the liver, thymus, and bursa (P < 0.05). The thymus and bursa from embryos in the SH treatment had increased MHCI mRNA when compared with the SS treatment (P < 0.05). The thymus from HH and SH treatments had increased MHCII mRNA while the bursa from the HH and SH treatments had decreased MHCII mRNA when compared with the SS treatment (P < 0.05). The spleen and bursa from the HH treatment had increased IL-6, IFNγ, and IL-10 mRNA when compared with the SS treatment (P < 0.05). The thymus and spleen from embryos in the HH treatment had increased CD8+/CD4+ ratios and CD4+CD25+ cell percentages compared with the SS treatment (P < 0.05). In conclusion, embryos incubated at 0.5°C higher than the standard incubation temperature from ED1 to 21 had increased HSP70 mRNA, MHCI, and inflammatory cytokines, and the immune response was skewed toward cell-mediated immunity.

Incubation and hatch management: consequences for bone mineralization in Cobb 500 meat chickens

From ~35 days of age fast growing meat chickens spend extended periods sitting or lying and less time standing. In a fast-feathering parent line lower early incubation temperatures which delayed chick hatch time, improved bone ash and extended their standing time. This incubation study assessed the consequences of incubation temperatures, hatch time and chick management at hatch/take off on femoral bone ash (BA) in Cobb 500 meat chickens. Embryos were incubated under either Control (between 37.8°C and 38.2°C egg shell temperature (EST)) or a Slow start (from 37.2°C at sett (the start of incubation), reaching 37.8°C EST at day 13 incubation), temperatures. Hatched chicks were identified at 492 h (20.5 days of incubation - classified as early (E)) or, between >492 and ⩽516 h (>20.5 and ⩽21.5 days of incubation - classified as late (L)), from setting. The E hatch chicks were allocated across three post-hatch treatments; treatment 1: E hatch chicks that were sampled E at 492 h from setting; treatment 2: E hatch chicks that were fed for a further 24 h in a floorpen before being sampled L at 516 h from setting; treatment 3: E hatch chicks that spent a further 24 h in the incubator before being sampled L at 516 h from setting. All L hatch chicks formed one treatment group which was sampled L at 516 h (i.e. L hatch chicks sampled L). It is not possible to sample L hatching chicks E hence this treatment is absent from the experimental design. Slow start incubation resulted in a higher total hatch percentage with a greater proportion of chicks hatching L, compared with the Control incubation. The L hatching chicks had significantly higher BA than the E hatching chicks. Of the E hatching chicks, those sampled both E and L had significantly lower BA than E hatching chicks fed for 24 h before L sampling. The E hatch, fed and sampled L chicks had the numerically highest BA, which was not significantly different from the BA of the L hatching chicks sampled L These results demonstrate that BA at hatch can be improved, either by extending the incubation period through a Slow start incubation profile, inducing L hatch, or alternatively, via the prompt provision of feed to E hatching chicks.

Earlier hatching time predisposes Cobb broiler chickens to tibial dyschondroplasia

Fertile eggs from Cobb 500 broiler breeder hens were incubated to provide low starting egg shell temperatures (EST; 36.9°C to 37.3°C) which were gradually increased to 37.8°C during the first 7 to 15 days of incubation compared with eggs incubated with a constant EST of 37.8°C (standard conditions) over the first 18 days of incubation. Time of individual chick hatching (measured at 6 h intervals from 468 h of incubation), chick weight, chick length and yolk weight were measured at take-off and BW was measured at 7, 14, 28, 34 and 42 days of age. Male birds at 34 and 42 days of age were assessed for their ability to remain standing in a latency-to-lie test. At 34 and 42 days, male birds were examined for leg symmetry, foot pad dermatitis, hock bruising and scored (scale 0 to 4, where 0=no lesion and 4=lesions extending completely across the tibial growth plate) for tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) lesions. The lower EST profiles caused chicks to hatch later than those incubated under the standard EST profile. Chicks which hatched at ⩽498 h incubation grew faster over the first 7 days than those that hatched later. There were significantly more birds (only males were studied) that hatched from the lower EST profiles with TD scores of 0 and 1 and fewer with score 4 at 34 days than those hatched under the standard profile. Male birds at 34 days with TD lesions ⩾3 stood for significantly shorter times than males with TD scores ⩽2. Moreover, male birds at 34 and 42 days with TD lesion scores of ⩾3 hatched significantly earlier and grew significantly faster over the first 2 weeks of age than did male birds with TD scores ⩽2. It appears possible to decrease the severity and prevalence of TD in the Cobb 500 broiler by ensuring that the birds do not hatch before 498 h of incubation.

Evidence in duck for supporting alteration of incubation temperature may have influence on methylation of genomic DNA

Incubation temperature has an immediate and long-term influence on the embryonic development in birds. DNA methylation as an important environment-induced mechanism could serve as a potential link between embryos’ phenotypic variability and temperature variation, which reprogrammed by DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferases (DNMTS) and Methyl-CpG binding domain proteins (MBPS) 3&5 (MBD3&5). Five genes in DNMTS and MBPS gene families were selected as target genes, given their important role in epigenetic modification. In this study, we aimed to test whether raising incubation temperature from 37.8°C to 38.8°C between embryonic days (ED) 1–10, ED10–20 and ED20–27 have effect on DNA methylation and whether DNMTS, MBPS play roles in thermal epigenetic regulation of early development in duck. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis showed that increased incubation temperature by 1°C has remarkably dynamic effect on gene expression levels of DNMTS and MBPS. Slight changes in incubation temperature significantly increased mRNA levels of target genes in breast muscle tissue during ED1–10, especially for DNMT1, DNMT3A and MBD5. In addition, higher temperature significantly increased enzyme activities of DNMT1 in leg muscle during ED10–20, liver tissue during ED1–10, ED20–27 and DNMT3A in leg muscle and breast muscle tissue during ED10–20. These results suggest that incubation temperature has an extended effect on gene expression levels and enzyme activities of DNMTS and MBPS, which provides evidence that incubation temperature may influence DNA methylation in duck during early developmental stages. Our data indicated that DNMTS and MBPS may involved in thermal epigenetice regulation of embryos during the early development in duck. The potential links between embryonic temperature and epigenetic modification need further investigation

A meta-analysis of experiments linking incubation conditions with subsequent leg weakness in broiler chickens

A series of incubation and broiler growth studies were conducted using one strain of broiler chicken (fast feathering dam line) observing incubation effects on femoral bone ash % at hatch and the ability of the bird to remain standing at 6 weeks of age (Latency-To-Lie). Egg shell temperatures during incubation were consistently recorded. Parsimonious models were developed across eight studies using stepwise multiple linear regression of egg shell temperatures over 3-day periods and both bone ash at hatch and Latency-To-Lie. A model for bone ash at hatch explained 70% of the variation in this factor and revealed an association with lower egg shell temperatures during days 4–6 and 13–15 and higher egg shell temperatures during days 16–18 of incubation. Bone ash at hatch and subsequent Latency-To-Lie were positively correlated (r = 0.57, P<0.05). A model described 66% of the variation Latency-To-Lie showing significant association of the interaction of femoral ash at hatch and lower average egg shell temperatures over the first 15 days of incubation. Lower egg shell temperature in the early to mid incubation process (days 1–15) and higher egg shell temperatures at a later stage (days 16–18) will both tend to delay the hatch time of incubating eggs. Incubation profiles that resulted in later hatching chicks produced birds which could remain standing for a longer time at 6 weeks of age. This supports a contention that the effects of incubation observed in many studies may in fact relate more to earlier hatching and longer sojourn of the hatched chick in the final stage incubator. The implication of these outcomes are that the optimum egg shell temperature during incubation for broiler leg strength development may be lower than that regarded as ideal (37.8°C) for maximum hatchability and chick growth.

The effects of different eggshell temperatures on embryonic development, hatchability, chick quality, and first-week broiler performance

The aim of the current study was to determine the effects of different eggshell temperatures (EST) during 10 to 18 d of incubation on embryonic development, hatchability, chick quality, first-week broiler performance. The EST were maintained within the temperature ranges of 33.3 to 36.7, 37.8 to 38.2, and 38.9 to 40.0°C for the low, control, and high EST treatments, respectively. From d 15 to 18, embryo weight and relative embryo weight were found to be similar in the low and high EST groups. Salable chicks and hatchability of total eggs was found to be higher in the control EST group. Between d 10 and 17 of incubation, embryonic mortality in low, control, and high EST groups was determined to be 1.6, 0.8, and 2.0%, respectively. From d 18 to hatch, embryonic mortality and rate of dead and cull chicks were found to be significantly different. Hatching in high EST group was completed 26 h early, although hatching in low EST group was completed 10 h later than the control EST group. On the of hatching day, chick weight and length were found to be 39.5, 41.0, and 42.5 g, and 18.5, 21.4, and 19.1 cm in low, control, and high EST groups, respectively. The highest residual yolk sac weight and relative residual yolk sac weight were observed in high EST group as 7.7 g and 18.7%. Yolk-free chick weight and relative yolk-free chick weight were highest in the control EST group. At 1 wk of age, the BW in low, control, and high EST groups were determined as 131.1, 140.0, and 140.8 g, respectively. No significant difference was found for feed intake and feed conversion among treatments for wk 1. The mortality during the first week did not differ among groups; however, a higher mortality rate was observed numerically in the high EST group. In conclusion, embryo development, incubation parameters, chick quality, and the first week performance are affected by small changes in the EST.

Dexamethasone triggers lameness associated with necrosis of the proximal tibial head and proximal femoral head in broilers

Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) and turkey osteomyelitis complex (TOC) are characterized by bacterial infection and necrotic degeneration within the tibiae and femora. Stress and immunosuppression have been implicated in the pathogenesis of BCO and TOC. Immunosuppressive doses of dexamethasone (DEX) trigger high incidences of TOC in turkey poults. The present study was conducted to determine if DEX injections or heat stress can trigger BCO and lameness in broilers. In 3 independent experiments, broilers were weighed and either remained uninjected or received repeated injections of 0.9% saline or DEX dissolved in saline (0.45 to 1.5 mg of DEX/kg of BW). Across all 3 experiments, the incidences of lameness were 0% for uninjected controls, 0 to 8% in saline-injected groups, and 24 to 68% in groups injected with 0.9 to 1.5 mg of DEX/kg of BW. Growth was inhibited by DEX injections regardless of whether the birds became lame or survived. When compared with saline-injected groups, DEX injections consistently increased the incidence of severe proximal tibial head necrosis in lame birds as well as in survivors. The DEX injections also triggered a subset of lesions that are not considered pathognomonic for BCO (for example, avascular femoral head necrosis and fatty necrosis of the tibiae). In a fourth experiment, repeated episodes of heat stress did not trigger lameness, although the subclinical incidence of tibial head necrosis was substantially higher at 28 and 35 d of age in heat-stressed broilers when compared with broilers reared under thermoneutral conditions. Accordingly, stress and immunosuppression must be considered contributing factors in the pathogenesis of tibial and femoral lesions associated with lameness in broilers. A subset of the lesions triggered by repeated DEX injections did not precisely mimic the pathogenesis of BCO in broilers, and DEX consistently inhibited growth whereas BCO is associated with rapid growth. These caveats must be acknowledged when DEX is used to trigger lameness in broilers.