Electrochemical Fingerprints of Illicit Drugs on Graphene and Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Towards the development of a portable device based on modified-voltammetric sensors for the detection of illicit drugs and seized samples

Illicit drugs are a global burden, not only for society, but also for the various control authorities for which its rapid on-site detection remains a challenge. In this context, the potential of a voltammetric electronic tongue (ET) for the analysis of different drugs is evaluated herein. Concretely, the discrimination and identification of cocaine, heroin, 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), methamphetamine and ketamine in self-prepared and real samples were attempted. For its analysis, an array of three carbon-based screen-printed electrodes (SPE) was prepared, and their responses towards the different drugs and some of the more common cutting agents and adulterants were assessed by means of square wave voltammetry (SWV). To this aim, a tiny amount (ca. 3 mg) of the drug powder was added to the electrochemical cell containing phosphate buffer (pH 12), shaken, and measured directly without any other pre-treatment than its dilution. Next, to identify their characteristic fingerprint, obtained voltammograms were submitted to linear discriminant analysis (LDA), which allowed to correctly identify the different drugs regardless of the presence of the different cutting agents and other possible interfering compounds, or their concentration. Satisfactory results were obtained both for the synthetic and the "street" seized samples, with a classification rate of 100 % for the external test subset of the latter (n = 10).

Competitive Electrochemical Apta-Assay Based on cDNA-Ferrocene and MXenes for Staphylococcus aureus Surface Protein A Detection

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) represents one of the most frequent worldwide causes of morbidity and mortality due to an infectious agent. It is a part of the infamous ESKAPE group, which is highly connected with increased rates of healthcare-associated infections and antimicrobial resistance. S. aureus can cause a large variety of diseases. Protein A (PrA) is a cell-wall-anchored protein of S. aureus with multiple key roles in colonization and pathogenesis and can be considered as a marker of S. aureus. The development of aptasensors, having an aptamer as a specific biorecognition element, increases selectivity, especially when working with complex matrices. The association with state-of-the-art materials, such as MXenes, can further improve the analytical performance. A competitive aptasensor configuration based on a ferrocene (Fc)-labeled cDNA hybridized (cDNA-Fc S13) on a specific aptamer (APT) for PrA in the presence of MXene nanosheets was designed for the indirect detection of S. aureus. The aptasensor displayed a linear range of 10-125 nM, an LOD of 3.33 nM, and a response time under 40 min. This configuration has been tested in real samples from volunteers diagnosed with S. aureus infections with satisfactory results, enabling the perspective to develop decentralized devices for the rapid detection of bacterial strains.

Progress on the Electrochemical Sensing of Illicit Drugs

Illicit drugs are harmful substances, threatening both health and safety of societies in all corners of the world. Several policies have been developed over time to deal with this illicit drug problem, including supply reduction and harm reduction policies. Both policies require on-site detection tools to succeed, i.e. sensors that can identify illicit drugs in samples at the point-of-care. Electrochemical sensors are highly suited for this task, due to their short analysis times, low cost, high accuracy, portability and orthogonality with current technologies. In this chapter, we evaluate the latest trend in electrochemical sensing of illicit drugs, with a focus on detection of illicit drugs in seizures and body fluids. Furthermore, we will also provide an outlook on the potential of electrochemistry in wearable sensors for this purpose.

Towards nanotube-based sensors for discrimination of drug molecules

The proper detection of drug molecules is key for applications that have an impact in several fields, ranging from medical treatments to industrial applications. In case of illegal drugs, their correct and fast detection has important implications that affect different parts of society such as security or public health. Here we present a method based on nanoscale sensors made of carbon nanotubes modified with dopants that can detect three types of drug molecules: mephedrone, methamphetamine and heroin. We show that each molecule produces a distinctive feature in the density of states that can be used to detect it and distinguish it from other types of molecules. In particular, we show that for semiconducting nanotubes the inclusion of molecules reduces the gap around the Fermi energy and produces peaks in the density of states below the Fermi energy at positions that are different for each molecule. These results prove that it is possible to design nanoscale sensors based on carbon nanotubes tailored with dopants, in such a way that they might be able to discriminate between different types of compounds and, especially, drug molecules whose proper recognition has important consequences in different fields.

Forensic Analysis of Synthetic Cathinones on Nanomaterials-Based Platforms: Chemometric-Assisted Voltametric and UPLC-MS/MS Investigation

Synthetic cathinones (SCs) are a group of new psychoactive substances often referred to as "legal highs" or "bath salts", being characterized by a dynamic change, new compounds continuously emerging on the market. This creates a lack of fast screening tests, making SCs a constant concern for law enforcement agencies. Herein, we present a fast and simple method for the detection of four SCs (alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, N-ethylhexedrone, 4-chloroethcathinone, and 3-chloromethcathinone) based on their electrochemical profiles in a decentralized manner. In this regard, the voltametric characterization of the SCs was performed by cyclic and square wave voltammetry. The elucidation of the SCs redox pathways was successfully achieved using liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry. For the rational identification of the ideal experimental conditions, chemometric data processing was employed, considering two critical qualitative and quantitative variables: the type of the electrochemical platform and the pH of the electrolyte. The analytical figures of merit were determined on standard working solutions using the optimized method, which exhibited wide linear ranges and LODs suitable for confiscated sample screening. Finally, the performance of the method was evaluated on real confiscated samples, the resulting validation parameters being similar to those obtained with another portable device (i.e., Raman spectrometer).

Electrochemical Rapid Detection of Methamphetamine from Confiscated Samples Using a Graphene-Based Printed Platform

Methamphetamine (MAP) is a highly addictive and illegal stimulant drug that has a significant impact on the central nervous system. Its detection in biological and street samples is crucial for various organizations involved in forensic medicine, anti-drug efforts, and clinical diagnosis. In recent years, nanotechnology and nanomaterials have played a significant role in the development of analytical sensors for MAP detection. In this study, a fast, simple, and cost-effective electrochemical sensor is presented that is used for the sensitive detection of MAP in confiscated street samples with a complex matrix. The optimized screen-printed sensor based on a carbon working electrode modified with graphene demonstrated an excellent limit of detection, good sensitivity, and a wide dynamic range (1-500 μM) for the target illicit drug both for standard solutions and real samples (seized samples, tap water, and wastewater samples). It can detect MAP at concentrations as low as 300 nM in real samples. This limit of detection is suitable for the rapid preliminary screening of suspicious samples in customs, ports, airports, and on the street. Furthermore, the sensor exhibits a good recovery rate, indicating its reliability and repeatability. This quality is crucial for ensuring consistent and accurate results during screening processes.

Hyaluronic acid modified carbon nanotubes using for photothermal therapy by promoting apoptosis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells

Background: The present work illustrates the role of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in photothermal therapy. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a malignant tumor of the head and neck with significant ethnic and geographic differences, and conventional treatment options are no longer suitable to improve the prognosis and survival of patients. Photothermal therapy (PTT) has emerged as a new strategy for oncology treatment in recent years and is now used in the treatment of many common cancers. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) have been used to advantage in several fields due to their excellent thermal conductivity. The aim of this paper is to investigate the promotion of apoptosis of nasopharyngeal cancer cells by multi-walled carbon nanotubes as an adjuvant nanomaterial for nasopharyngeal cancer photothermal therapy. Methods: Carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes and prepared multi-walled carbon nanotube-hyaluronic acid (MWCNT-HA) composites were used for cell proliferation-related experiments such as CCK-8 assay, live-dead staining and flow cytometric analysis and inverted fluorescence microscopy to determine the expression level of apoptotic factors and confocal microscopy cell morphology analysis on nasopharyngeal carcinoma CNE-1 cells under near-infrared laser irradiation. The effects of multi-walled carbon nanotubes on the proliferation and apoptosis of tumor cells under NIR response were elucidated, and the mechanism of apoptosis was explored. Results: TEM and SEM demonstrated that MWCNT had good appearance morphology and the temperature rise curve indicated excellent photothermal stability. And MWCNT and MWCNT-HA could significantly inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells and change the normal morphology of cells under NIR laser irradiation. Cellular immunofluorescence analysis confirmed that MWCNT-HA significantly upregulated the expression level of apoptosis factor Caspase-3 and significantly downregulated the expression level of anti-apoptosis factor Bcl-2. Conclusion: In this study, MWCNT inhibited the proliferation of tumor cells and promoted apoptosis through the use of multi-walled carbon nanotubes as an adjuvant nanomaterial for photothermal therapy. In addition, multi-walled carbon nanotubes could inhibit the mitochondrial pathway of CNE-1 cells to cause cell death. These studies suggest that multi-walled carbon nanotubes can function as efficient photothermal conversion materials for tumor photothermal therapy.

Not a waste: Wastewater surveillance to enhance public health

Domestic wastewater, when collected and evaluated appropriately, can provide valuable health-related information for a community. As a relatively unbiased and non-invasive approach, wastewater surveillance may complement current practices towards mitigating risks and protecting population health. Spurred by the COVID-19 pandemic, wastewater programs are now widely implemented to monitor viral infection trends in sewersheds and inform public health decision-making. This review summarizes recent developments in wastewater-based epidemiology for detecting and monitoring communicable infectious diseases, dissemination of antimicrobial resistance, and illicit drug consumption. Wastewater surveillance, a quickly advancing Frontier in environmental science, is becoming a new tool to enhance public health, improve disease prevention, and respond to future epidemics and pandemics.

Graphene-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Psychoactive Drugs

Sensors developed from nanomaterials are increasingly used in a variety of fields, from simple wearable or medical sensors to be used at home to monitor health, to more complicated sensors being used by border customs or aviation industries. In recent times, nanoparticle-based sensors have begun to revolutionize drug-detection techniques, mainly due to their affordability, ease of use and portability, compared to conventional chromatography techniques. Thin graphene layers provide a significantly high surface to weight ratio compared to other nanomaterials, a characteristic that has led to the design of more sensitive and reliable sensors. The exceptional properties of graphene coupled with its potential to be tuned to target specific molecules have made graphene-based sensors one of the most popular and well-researched sensing materials of the past two decades with applications in environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and industries. Here, we present a review of developments in the applications of graphene-based sensors in sensing drugs such as cocaine, morphine, methamphetamine, ketamine, tramadol and so forth in the past decade. We compare graphene sensors with other sensors developed from ultrathin two-dimensional materials, such as transition-metal dichalcogenides, hexagonal boron nitrate, and MXenes, to measure drugs directly and indirectly, in various samples.

Metal Nanoparticles and Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Improved Performances of Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors with Biomedical Applications

Monitoring human health for early detection of disease conditions or health disorders is of major clinical importance for maintaining a healthy life. Sensors are small devices employed for qualitative and quantitative determination of various analytes by monitoring their properties using a certain transduction method. A "real-time" biosensor includes a biological recognition receptor (such as an antibody, enzyme, nucleic acid or whole cell) and a transducer to convert the biological binding event to a detectable signal, which is read out indicating both the presence and concentration of the analyte molecule. A wide range of specific analytes with biomedical significance at ultralow concentration can be sensitively detected. In nano(bio)sensors, nanoparticles (NPs) are incorporated into the (bio)sensor design by attachment to the suitably modified platforms. For this purpose, metal nanoparticles have many advantageous properties making them useful in the transducer component of the (bio)sensors. Gold, silver and platinum NPs have been the most popular ones, each form of these metallic NPs exhibiting special surface and interface features, which significantly improve the biocompatibility and transduction of the (bio)sensor compared to the same process in the absence of these NPs. This comprehensive review is focused on the main types of NPs used for electrochemical (bio)sensors design, especially screen-printed electrodes, with their specific medical application due to their improved analytical performances and miniaturized form. Other advantages such as supporting real-time decision and rapid manipulation are pointed out. A special attention is paid to carbon-based nanomaterials (especially carbon nanotubes and graphene), used by themselves or decorated with metal nanoparticles, with excellent features such as high surface area, excellent conductivity, effective catalytic properties and biocompatibility, which confer to these hybrid nanocomposites a wide biomedical applicability.