Activation of Interleukin-1β Release by the Classical Swine Fever Virus Is Dependent on the NLRP3 Inflammasome, Which Affects Virus Growth in Monocytes

The Interplay Between Viral Infection and Cell Death: A Ping-Pong Effect

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a well-studied cellular mechanism that plays a critical role in immune responses, developmental processes, and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. However, viruses have developed diverse strategies to bypass or manipulate the host apoptotic machinery to enhance their replication and survival. As a result, the interaction between PCD pathways and viruses has garnered increased interest, leading to many studies being published in recent years. This study aims to provide an overview of the current understanding of PCD pathways and their significance in viral infections. We will discuss various forms of cell death pathways, including apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, and pyroptosis, as well as their corresponding molecular mechanisms. In addition, we will show how viruses manipulate host PCD pathways to prevent or delay cell death or facilitate viral replication. This study emphasizes the importance of investigating the mechanisms by which viruses control the host's PCD machinery to gain insight into the evolutionary dynamics of host-pathogen interactions and to develop new approaches for predicting and managing viral threats. Overall, we aimed to highlight new research areas in PCD and viruses, including introduction of new targets for the development of new antiviral drugs to modulate the cellular apoptotic machinery and novel inhibitors of host cell death pathways.

Advances in research on the impact and mechanisms of pathogenic microorganism infections on pyroptosis

Pyroptosis, also known as inflammatory necrosis, is a form of programmed cell death characterized by the activation of gasdermin proteins, leading to the formation of pores in the cell membrane, continuous cell swelling, and eventual membrane rupture. This process results in the release of intracellular contents, including pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β and IL-18, which subsequently trigger a robust inflammatory response. This process is a crucial component of the body's innate immune response and plays a significant role in combating infections. There are four main pathways through which pathogenic microorganisms induce pyroptosis: the canonical inflammasome pathway, the non-canonical inflammasome pathway, the apoptosis-associated caspase-mediated pathway, and the granzyme-mediated pathway. This article provides a brief overview of the effects and mechanisms of pathogen infections on pyroptosis.

High-resolution kinetic characterization of the RIG-I-signaling pathway and the antiviral response

RIG-I recognizes viral dsRNA and activates a cell-autonomous antiviral response. Upon stimulation, it triggers a signaling cascade leading to the production of type I and III IFNs. IFNs are secreted and signal to elicit the expression of IFN-stimulated genes, establishing an antiviral state of the cell. The topology of this pathway has been studied intensively, however, its exact dynamics are less understood. Here, we employed electroporation to synchronously activate RIG-I, enabling us to characterize cell-intrinsic innate immune signaling at a high temporal resolution. Employing IFNAR1/IFNLR-deficient cells, we could differentiate primary RIG-I signaling from secondary signaling downstream of the IFN receptors. Based on these data, we developed a comprehensive mathematical model capable of simulating signaling downstream of dsRNA recognition by RIG-I and the feedback and signal amplification by IFN. We further investigated the impact of viral antagonists on signaling dynamics. Our work provides a comprehensive insight into the signaling events that occur early upon virus infection and opens new avenues to study and disentangle the complexity of the host-virus interface.

PRRSV inhibited the proliferation of CSFV by inducing IL-1β maturation via NLRP3 inflammasome activation

PRRSV and CSFV are both common infectious pathogens in porcine populations, posing significant threats to the healthy development of the porcine industry. Vaccine immunization is the main way to prevent and control these two diseases. Increasing studies have demonstrated that there is an interaction between PRRSV co-infection and CSFV vaccine immune failure. To investigate the effect of PRRSV infection on CSFV proliferation and its molecular mechanism, the proliferation dynamics of PRRSV/CSFV, the NLRP3 inflammasome components, and IL-1β expression levels were detected in PRRSV/CSFV alone- or co-infection. Subsequently, the relationship between inflammasome activation, IL-1β expression, and CSFV proliferation was analyzed through the construction of an inflammasome activation model, specific siRNA interference, and specific inhibitor treatment. The results showed that CSFV infection had a poor regulatory effect on NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1β maturation, but PRRSV and CSFV co-infection could significantly up-regulate the expression of NLRP3 and ASC, induce Caspase-1 activation, and promote IL-1β maturation. It was further determined that NLRP3 inflammasome components played important roles in IL-1β maturation and inhibiting CSFV proliferation by PRRSV. Additional experiments indicated that PRRSV replication is essential for NLRP3 inflammasome activation, IL-1β maturation, and CSFV proliferation inhibition. More importantly, NLRP3 inflammasome activation is regulated by the TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB pathways. In conclusion, PRRSV infection induced IL-1β maturation by activating the NLRP3 inflammasome through the TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB pathways and then inhibited the proliferation of CSFV. These data further improved the theoretical basis for PRRSV inducing inflammatory factors and leading to the failure of CSFV immunization.

Inflammasome activation by viral infection: mechanisms of activation and regulation

Viral diseases are the most common problems threatening human health, livestock, and poultry industries worldwide. Viral infection is a complex and competitive dynamic biological process between a virus and a host/target cell. During viral infection, inflammasomes play important roles in the host and confer defense mechanisms against the virus. Inflammasomes are polymeric protein complexes and are considered important components of the innate immune system. These immune factors recognize the signals of cell damage or pathogenic microbial infection after activation by the canonical pathway or non-canonical pathway and transmit signals to the immune system to initiate the inflammatory responses. However, some viruses inhibit the activation of the inflammasomes in order to replicate and proliferate in the host. In recent years, the role of inflammasome activation and/or inhibition during viral infection has been increasingly recognized. Therefore, in this review, we describe the biological properties of the inflammasome associated with viral infection, discuss the potential mechanisms that activate and/or inhibit NLRP1, NLRP3, and AIM2 inflammasomes by different viruses, and summarize the reciprocal regulatory effects of viral infection on the NLRP3 inflammasome in order to explore the relationship between viral infection and inflammasomes. This review will pave the way for future studies on the activation mechanisms of inflammasomes and provide novel insights for the development of antiviral therapies.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Involved with Viral Replication in Cytopathic NADL BVDV Infection and IFI16 Inflammasome Connected with IL-1β Release in Non-Cytopathic NY-1 BVDV Infection in Bovine Macrophages

Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes that play a role in the processing of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β). The secretion of IL-1β in bovine macrophages infected with the bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) cytopathic strain NADL (NADLcp-BVDV) is caspase 1-dependent. In the present study, we found that in macrophages infected with NADL, the NLRP3 inflammasome participated in the maturation of IL-1β as the level decreased from 4629.3 pg/mL to 897.0 pg/mL after treatment with cytokine release inhibitory drug 3 (CRID3). Furthermore, NLRP3 activation has implications regarding viral replication, as there was a decrease in the viral titer until 1 log of a supernatant of macrophages that were inhibited with CRID3 remained. In the case of the non-cytopathic BVDV strain NY-1 (NY-1 ncpBVDV), IL-1β secretion is not affected by NLRP3, but could be related to the IFI16 inflammasome; we found a colocalization of IFI16 with ASC using confocal microscopy in infected macrophages with the NY-1 ncp-BVDV biotype. To relate IFI16 activation to IL-1β release, we used ODN TTAGGG (A151), a competitive inhibitor of IFI16; the results show a decrease in its level from 248 pg/mL to 128.3 pg/mL. Additionally, we evaluated the caspase 1 activation downstream of IFI16 and found a decrease in the IL-1β from 252.9 pg/mL to 63.5 pg/mL when caspase 1 was inhibited with Y-VAD. Our results provide an improved understanding of the mechanisms involved in the viral replication, inflammation and pathogenesis of bovine viral diarrhea.

Transcriptome analysis of PK-15 cells expressing CSFV NS4A

BACKGROUND

Classical swine fever (CSF) is a severe disease of pigs that results in huge economic losses worldwide and is caused by classical swine fever virus (CSFV). CSFV nonstructural protein 4 A (NS4A) plays a crucial role in infectious CSFV particle formation. However, the function of NS4A during CSFV infection is not well understood.  RESULTS: In this study, we used RNA-seq to investigate the functional role of CSFV NS4A in PK-15 cells. A total of 3893 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in PK-15 cells expressing NS4A compared to cells expressing the empty vector (NC). Twelve DEGs were selected and further verified by RT‒qPCR. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses revealed that these DEGs were associated with multiple biological functions, including cell adhesion, apoptosis, host defence response, the inflammatory response, the immune response, and autophagy. Interestingly, some genes associated with host immune defence and inflammatory response were downregulated, and some genes associated with host apoptosis and autophagy were upregulated.

CONCLUSION

CSFV NS4A inhibits the innate immune response, and suppresses the expression of important genes associated with defence response to viruses and inflammatory response, and regulates cell adhesion, apoptosis and autophagy.

Identification of key proteins of cytopathic biotype bovine viral diarrhoea virus involved in activating NF-κB pathway in BVDV-induced inflammatory response

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is the etiologic agent of bovine viral diarrhea-mucosal disease, one of the most important viral diseases in cattle, with inflammatory diarrhea, enteritis, and mucosa necrosis as the major clinical manifestations. NF-κB is an important transcription complex that regulates the expression of genes involved in inflammation and immune responses. NLRP3 inflammasome plays a key role in the development of inflammatory diseases. However, whether the activation of NF-κB is crucial for BVDV infection-induced inflammatory responses remains unclear. The results of our present study showed that BVDV infection significantly activated the NF-κB pathway and promoted the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components (NLRP3, ASC, pro-caspase 1) as well inflammatory cytokine pro-IL-1β in BVDV-infected bovine cells, resulting in the cleavage of pro-caspase 1 and pro-IL-1β into active form caspase 1 and IL-1β. However, the levels of the NLRP3 inflammasome components and inflammatory cytokines were obviously inhibited, as well the cleavage of pro-caspase 1 and pro-IL-1β in the pre-treated bovine cells with NF-κB-specific inhibitors after BVDV infection. Further, cytopathic biotype BVDV (cpBVDV) Erns and NS5A proteins with their key functional domains contributed to BVDV-induced inflammatory responses via activating the NF-κB pathway were confirmed experimentally. Especially, the NS5A can promote cholesterol synthesis and accelerate its augmentation, further activating the NF-κB signalling pathway. Conclusively, our data elucidate that the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway plays a crucial role in cpBVDV infection-induced inflammatory responses.

Molecular Mechanism and Role of Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection in Central Nervous System-Mediated Diseases

The Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the most common cause of neurodegenerative disease in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific region; approximately 1.15 billion people are at risk, and thousands suffer from permanent neurological disorders across Asian countries, with 10-15 thousand people dying each year. JEV crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and forms a complex with receptors on the surface of neurons. GRP78, Src, TLR7, caveolin-1, and dopamine receptor D2 are involved in JEV binding and entry into the neurons, and these receptors also play a role in carcinogenic activity in cells. JEV binds to GRP78, a member of the HSP70 overexpressed on malignant cells to enter neurons, indicating a higher chance of JEV infection in cancer patients. However, JEV enters human brain microvascular endothelial cells via an endocytic pathway mediated by caveolae and the ezrin protein and also targets dopamine-rich areas for infection of the midbrain via altering dopamine levels. In addition, JEV complexed with CLEC5A receptor of macrophage cells is involved in the breakdown of the BBB and central nervous system (CNS) inflammation. CLEC5A-mediated infection is also responsible for the influx of cytokines into the CNS. In this review, we discuss the neuronal and macrophage surface receptors involved in neuronal death.

Promiscuous Inflammasomes: The False Dichotomy of RNA/DNA Virus-Induced Inflammasome Activation and Pyroptosis

It is well-known that viruses activate various inflammasomes, which can initiate the programmed cell death pathway known as pyroptosis, subsequently leading to cell lysis and release of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18. This pathway can be triggered by various sensors, including, but not limited to, NLRP3, AIM2, IFI16, RIG-I, and NLRC4. Many viruses are known either to activate or inhibit inflammasomes as a part of the innate immune response or as a mechanism of pathogenesis. Early research in the field of virus-induced pyroptosis suggested a dichotomy, with RNA viruses activating the NLRP3 inflammasome and DNA viruses activating the AIM2 inflammasome. More recent research has shown that this dichotomy may not be as distinct as once thought. It seems many viruses activate multiple inflammasome sensors. Here, we detail which viruses fit the dichotomy as well as many that appear to defy this clearly false dichotomy. It seems likely that most, if not all, viruses activate multiple inflammasome sensors, and future research should focus on expanding our understanding of inflammasome activation in a variety of tissue types as well as virus activation of multiple inflammasomes, challenging biases that stemmed from early literature in this field. Here, we review primarily research performed on human viruses but also include details regarding animal viruses whenever possible.

Identification of duck GSDME: Tissue distribution, proteolysis and cellular location

Gasdermin E (GSDME) is a member of the gasdermin family. Cleavage of mammalian GSDME by apoptotic caspases or granzyme proteases liberates the N-terminal effector domain (GSDME-N), which is capable of forming membrane pores and executing inflammation and cell death. Herein, duck GSDME was first cloned with a total length of 1500 bp and encoding 499 amino acids (aa), which is most evolutionally related to the chicken GSDME. The tissue-distribution profiles of GSDME showed that relatively high levels of GSDME mRNA were detected in immune tissues of duckling and adult ducks. Additionally, GSDME mRNA was significantly upregulated in duck primary embryo fibroblasts (DEFs) and duck primary ovary cells after duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) infection. Intriguingly, when duck caspase-3 was coexpressed, the duck GSDME produced two GSDME-N fragments with molecular weights of 25 kDa and 30 kDa. Furthermore, both GSDME and cleaved GSDME were observed to be located in the cytoplasm by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Taken together, our research data show that duck GSDME has similar biological characteristics to mammals. These findings highlight the role of duck GSDME in TMUV infection, indicating that cooperation between GSDME and caspase-3 promotes the proteolytic process.

Cell pyroptosis in picornavirus and its potential for treating viral infection

Cell pyroptosis has received increased attention due to the associations between innate immunity and disease, and it has become a major focal point recently due to in-depth studies of cancer. With increased research on pyroptosis, scientists have discovered that it has an essential role in viral infections, especially in the occurrence and development of some picornavirus infections. Many picornaviruses, including Coxsackievirus, a71 enterovirus, human rhinovirus, encephalomyocarditis virus, and foot-and-mouth disease virus induce pyroptosis to varying degrees. This review summarized the mechanisms by which these viruses induce cell pyroptosis, which can be an effective defense against pathogen infection. However, excessive inflammasome activation or pyroptosis also can damage the host's health or aggravate disease progression. Careful approaches that acknowledge this dual effect will aid in the exploration of picornavirus infections and the mechanisms that produce the inflammatory response. This information will promote the development of drugs that can inhibit cell pyroptosis and provide new avenues for future clinical treatment. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Porcine Gasdermin D Is a Substrate of Caspase-1 and an Executioner of Pyroptosis

Gasdermin (GSDM) family proteins were recently identified as the executioner of pyroptosis. The mechanism of pyroptosis mediated by gasdermin D (GSDMD) (a member of GSDM family) in humans and mice is well understood. In pyroptosis, mouse and human GSDMDs are cleaved by activated proinflammatory caspases (caspase-1, 4, 5, or 11) to produce anamino-terminal domain (GSDMD-NT) and a carboxyl-terminal domain (GSDMD-CT). The GSDMD-NT drives cell membrane rupture, which leads to the pyroptotic death of the cells. The expression of porcine GSDMD (pGSDMD) has recently been determined, but the activation and regulation mechanism of pGSDMD and its ability to mediate pyroptosis are largely unknown. In the present study, the activation of porcine caspase-1 (pcaspase-1) and cleavage of pGSDMD occurred in the duodenum and jejunum of a piglet challenged with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli were first determined. Then the capability of pcaspase-1 to cleave pGSDMD was determined in a cell-free system and in human embryonic kidney cells. The pGSDMD cleavage by pcaspase-1 occurred after the pGSDMD molecule’s ₂₇₆Phenylalanine-Glutamine-Serine-Aspartic acid₂₇₉ motif. The pGSDMD-NT generated from the pGSDMD cleavage by pcaspase-1 showed the ability to drive cell membrane rupture in eukaryotic cells. When expressed in E. coli competent cells, pGSDMD-NT showed bactericidal activity. These results suggest that pGSDMD is a substate of pcaspase-1 and an executioner of pyroptosis. Our work sheds light on pGSDMD’s activation mechanisms and functions.

Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and elevation of interleukin-1β secretion in infection by sever fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) is an emerging phlebovirus that causes a hemorrhagic fever known as the severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS). Inflammasomes are a molecular platform that are assembled to process pro-caspase 1 and subsequently promote secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β/IL-18 for proinflammatory responses induced upon infection. We hypothesize that inflammasome activation and pyroptosis induced in SFTS results in elevated levels of IL-1β/IL-18 responsible for high fever and hemorrhage in the host, characteristic of SFTS. Here we report that IL-1β secretion was elevated in SFTS patients and infected mice and IL-1β levels appeared to be reversibly associated to disease severity and viral load in patients’ blood. Increased caspase-1 activation, IL-1β/IL-18 secretion, cell death, and processing of gasdermin D were detected, indicating that pyroptosis was induced in SFTSV-infected human peripheral blood monocytes (PBMCs). To characterize the mechanism of pyroptosis induction, we knocked down several NOD-like receptors (NLRs) with respective shRNAs in PBMCs and showed that the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome was critical for processing pro-caspase-1 and pro-IL-1β. Our data with specific inhibitors for NLRP3 and caspase-1 further showed that activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome was key to caspase-1 activation and IL-1β secretion which may be inhibitory to viral replication in PBMCs infected with SFTSV. The findings in this study suggest that the activation of the NLPR3 inflammasome and pyroptosis, leading to IL-1β/IL-18 secretion during the SFTSV infection, could play important roles in viral pathogenesis and host protection. Pyroptosis as part of innate immunity might be essential in proinflammatory responses and pathogenicty in humans infected with this novel phlebovirus.

Preparation of rabbit polyclonal antibody against porcine gasdermin D protein and determination of the expression of gasdermin D in cultured cells and porcine tissues

Gasdermin-D (GSDMD) is a member of the gasdermin (Gsdm) protein family, and its cleavage by inflammatory cysteine proteases (caspases, CASPs) is a critical event in cell pyroptosis. The role and functions of GSDMD on mice and humans are widely studied, but its expression, structure, and function in other species are less known. In the present work, rabbit anti-porcine GSDMD (pGSDMD) polyclonal antibody was prepared by immunizing New Zealand white rabbits with prokaryotic expressed recombinant pGSDMD (rpGSDMD). The prepared polyclonal antibody showed good specificity in Western blot and indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) assays. Western blot results showed that the polyclonal antibody could recognize overexpressed pGSDMD in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293T) and endogenously expressed pGSDMD in cultured intestinal porcine enterocytes (IPEC-J2) and porcine kidney cells (PK-15). Western blot also revealed that pGSDMD was expressed in the heart, liver, lung, kidney, gallbladder, and jejunum of pigs. HEK293T cells overexpressing GSDMD showed green fluorescence in the IIF assay only after being treated with 0.3% Triton-X 100, which indicated that the full-length pGSDMD was located in the plasma but not on the cell membrane. This work provides a useful tool and basic information for further studies on pGSDMD.

A bi-directional dialog between vascular cells and monocytes/macrophages regulates tumor progression

Cancer progression largely depends on tumor blood vessels as well on immune cell infiltration. In various tumors, vascular cells, namely endothelial cells (ECs) and pericytes, strongly regulate leukocyte infiltration into tumors and immune cell activation, hence the immune response to cancers. Recently, a lot of compelling studies unraveled the molecular mechanisms by which tumor vascular cells regulate monocyte and tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) recruitment and phenotype, and consequently tumor progression. Reciprocally, TAMs and monocytes strongly modulate tumor blood vessel and tumor lymphatic vessel formation by exerting pro-angiogenic and lymphangiogenic effects, respectively. Finally, the interaction between monocytes/TAMs and vascular cells is also impacting several steps of the spread of cancer cells throughout the body, a process called metastasis. In this review, the impact of the bi-directional dialog between blood vascular cells and monocytes/TAMs in the regulation of tumor progression is discussed. All together, these data led to the design of combinations of anti-angiogenic and immunotherapy targeting TAMs/monocyte whose effects are briefly discussed in the last part of this review.

Activation of Interleukin-1β Release and Pyroptosis by Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus Is Dependent on the NOD-Like Receptor Protein 3 Inflammasome in Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cell Line

Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is a coronavirus, which causes fatal severe diarrhea and leads to high mortality in newborn piglets. Inflammasomes are hub molecules that induce proinflammatory cytokine production and maturation to initiate innate immune defenses upon cellular infection. To date, the potential role of inflammasome in TGEV infection in porcine intestinal epithelial cells has not been elucidated. The present study aims to investigate the function of the inflammasome in response to TGEV infection in porcine intestinal epithelial cells. Our results revealed that TGEV infection induced the production of pro-interleukin-1β (pro-IL-1β) and enhanced its processing and maturation in porcine intestinal epithelial cells through caspase-1 activation. In addition, TGEV infection in porcine intestinal epithelial cells induced pyroptosis, indicated by cell death and the production and cleavage of gasdermin D (GSDMD). Meanwhile, TGEV infection sufficiently activated the expression and assembly of the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in porcine intestinal epithelial cells, and inhibition of NLRP3 blocked TGEV-induced IL-1β release. We also found that inhibition of NLRP3 enhanced the replication of TGEV without inducing cell death. In conclusion, these data demonstrated that activation of IL-1β release and pyroptosis is dependent on NLRP3 inflammasome, thus NLRP3 inflammasome may play a central role in the innate immune response to TGEV infection.

Gasdermin D Inhibits Coronavirus Infection by Promoting the Noncanonical Secretion of Beta Interferon

Pyroptosis, a programmed cell death, functions as an innate immune effector mechanism and plays a crucial role against microbial invasion. Gasdermin D (GSDMD), as the main pyroptosis effector, mediates pyroptosis and promotes releasing proinflammatory molecules into the extracellular environment through pore-forming activity, modifying inflammation and immune responses. While the substantial importance of GSDMD in microbial infection and cancer has been widely investigated, the role of GSDMD in virus infection, including coronaviruses, remains unclear. Enteric coronavirus transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) are the major agents for lethal watery diarrhea in neonatal pigs and pose the potential for spillover from pigs to humans. In this study, we found that alphacoronavirus TGEV upregulated and activated GSDMD, resulting in pyroptosis after infection. Furthermore, the fragment of swine GSDMD from amino acids 242 to 279 (242-279 fragment) was required to induce pyroptosis. Notably, GSDMD strongly inhibited both TGEV and PDCoV infection. Mechanistically, the antiviral activity of GSDMD was mediated through promoting the nonclassical release of antiviral beta interferon (IFN-β) and then enhancing the interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) responses. These findings showed that GSDMD dampens coronavirus infection by an uncovered GSDMD-mediated IFN secretion, which may present a novel target of coronavirus antiviral therapeutics. IMPORTANCE Coronaviruses, primarily targeting respiratory and gastrointestinal epithelia in vivo, have a serious impact on humans and animals. GSDMD, a main executioner of pyroptosis, is highly expressed in epithelial cells and involves viral infection pathogenesis. While the functions and importance of GSDMD as a critical regulator of inflammasome activities in response to intracellular bacterial infection have been extensively investigated, the roles of GSDMD during coronavirus infection remain unclear. We here show that alphacoronavirus TGEV triggered pyroptosis and upregulated GSDMD expression, while GSDMD broadly suppressed the infection of enteric coronavirus TGEV and PDCoV by its pore-forming activity via promoting unconventional release of IFN-β. Our study highlights the importance of GSDMD as a regulator of innate immunity and may open new avenues for treating coronavirus infection.

The Inflammasome in Times of COVID-19

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are members of the genus Betacoronavirus and the Coronaviridiae family responsible for infections such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and more recently, coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). CoV infections present mainly as respiratory infections that lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). However, CoVs, such as COVID-19, also present as a hyperactivation of the inflammatory response that results in increased production of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β and its downstream molecule IL-6. The inflammasome is a multiprotein complex involved in the activation of caspase-1 that leads to the activation of IL-1β in a variety of diseases and infections such as CoV infection and in different tissues such as lungs, brain, intestines and kidneys, all of which have been shown to be affected in COVID-19 patients. Here we review the literature regarding the mechanism of inflammasome activation by CoV infection, the role of the inflammasome in ARDS, ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI), and Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) as well as the potential mechanism by which the inflammasome may contribute to the damaging effects of inflammation in the cardiac, renal, digestive, and nervous systems in COVID-19 patients.

Classical swine fever virus: the past, present and future

Classical swine fever (CSF) is among the most relevant viral epizootic diseases of swine. Due to its severe economic impact, CSF is notifiable to the world organisation for animal health. Strict control policies, including systematic stamping out of infected herds with and without vaccination, have permitted regional virus eradication. Nevertheless, CSF virus (CSFV) persists in certain areas of the world and has re-emerged regularly. This review summarizes the basic established knowledge in the field and provides a comprehensive and updated overview of the recent advances in fundamental CSFV research, diagnostics and vaccine development. It covers the latest discoveries on the genetic diversity of pestiviruses, with implications for taxonomy, the progress in understanding disease pathogenesis, immunity against acute and persistent infections, and the recent findings in virus-host interactions and virulence determinants. We also review the progress and pitfalls in the improvement of diagnostic tools and the challenges in the development of modern and efficacious marker vaccines compatible with serological tests for disease surveillance. Finally, we highlight the gaps that require research efforts in the future.

Expression of recombinant classical swine fever virus E2 glycoprotein by endogenous Txnip promoter in stable transgenic CHO cells

As the main immunogen that could stimulate neutralized antibody in pigs, recombinant E2 protein of CSFV was expressed in CHO-dhfr-cells driven by endogenous Txnip promoter from Chinese hamster. Different fragments of Txnip promoter were amplified by PCR from isolated genomic DNA of CHO cells and cloned into different expression vectors. Compared with CMV promoter, CHO-pTxnip-4-rE2 (F12) cell clone with the highest yield of rE2 protein was established by random insertion of the expression cassette driven by 860 bp sequences of Txnip promoter. In combination with treatment of 800 nM MTX for copy amplification of inserted expression cassette, the dynamic expression profile of rE2 protein was observed. Then inducible expression strategy of balance between viable cell density and product yield was conducted by mixed addition of 0.1 mM NADH and 0.1 mM ATP in culture medium at day 3 of batch-wise culture. It could be concluded that Txnip promoter would be a promising alternative promoter for recombinant antigen protein expression in transgenic cells.

The Therapeutic Effects and Possible Mechanism of Pranoprofen in Mouse Model of Corneal Alkali Burns

Objective

To investigate therapeutic effects and possible mechanism of pranoprofen in a mouse model of corneal alkali burns and provide new evidence for the clinical treatment of corneal alkali burns.

Methods

A unilateral alkali burn was created in the central cornea by placing a piece of 2 mm diameter filter paper soaked in 1N NaOH on the right eye for 30 seconds. After the model was performed, C57BL/6J mice received topical treatment with saline eye drops or pranoprofen eye drops and were, respectively, categorized as saline group and pranoprofen group, whereas the remaining normal mice that were not subjected to alkali burns served as control, each group containing 15 mice (n = 45). On the 5th day after model establishment, the corneal fluorescein sodium staining score was evaluated in order to assess corneal epithelial damage. Tissue HE stain was used to observe the pathological changes of corneal tissue in each group. Real-time RT-PCR and western blot were also performed to detect the mRNA and protein expression of NLRP3, IL-1β/p17, and matrix metallopeptidase MMP-13.

Results

5 days after burns, microscopic observations of the pranoprofen group showed less corneal opacity and neovascularization development than the saline group. Sodium fluorescein staining showed obvious corneal structure disorders, poor corneal epithelium continuity, and a larger corneal epithelial defect area in the saline group (10.33±+−0.57) as opposed to the pranoprofen group (8.33 ± 0.57） (p < 0.05). HE stain results showed the saline group had obvious corneal structure disorder and the corneal epithelial layer was incomplete as opposed to the pranoprofen group. PCR and western blot results suggested that the pranoprofen group expressed less NLRP3, IL-1β, and MMP-13 mRNA and protein expression in corneal tissue than the saline group (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Pranoprofen may alleviate inflammatory response by inhibiting the expression levels of NLRP3 and IL-1β at the early stage of corneal alkali injury, lowering the expression of MMP-13 and ultimately reducing corneal epithelial damage.

Newcastle disease virus RNA-induced IL-1β expression via the NLRP3/caspase-1 inflammasome

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection causes severe inflammation and is a highly contagious disease in poultry. Virulent NDV strains (GM) induce large quantities of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), which is the central mediator of the inflammatory reaction. Excessive expression of IL-1β exacerbates inflammatory damage. Therefore, exploring the mechanisms underlying NDV-induced IL-1β expression can aid in further understanding the pathogenesis of Newcastle disease. Here, we showed that anti-IL-1β neutralizing antibody treatment decreased body temperature and mortality following infection with virulent NDV. We further explored the primary molecules involved in NDV-induced IL-1β expression from the perspective of both the host and virus. This study showed that overexpression of NLRP3 resulted in increased IL-1β expression, whereas inhibition of NLRP3 or caspase-1 caused a significant reduction in IL-1β expression, indicating that the NLRP3/caspase-1 axis is involved in NDV-induced IL-1β expression. Moreover, ultraviolet-inactivated GM (chicken/Guangdong/GM/2014) NDV failed to induce the expression of IL-1β. We then collected virus from GM-infected cell culture supernatant using ultracentrifugation, extracted the viral RNA, and stimulated the cells further with GM RNA. The results revealed that RNA alone was capable of inducing IL-1β expression. Moreover, NLRP3/caspase-1 was involved in GM RNA-induced IL-1β expression. Thus, our study elucidated the critical role of IL-1β in the pathogenesis of Newcastle disease while also demonstrating that inhibition of IL-1β via anti-IL-1β neutralizing antibodies decreased the damage associated with NDV infection; furthermore, GM RNA induced IL-1β expression via NLRP3/caspase-1.

The Role of Autophagy and Autophagy Receptor NDP52 in Microbial Infections

Autophagy is a general protective mechanism for maintaining homeostasis in eukaryotic cells, regulating cellular metabolism, and promoting cell survival by degrading and recycling cellular components under stress conditions. The degradation pathway that is mediated by autophagy receptors is called selective autophagy, also named as xenophagy. Autophagy receptor NDP52 acts as a ‘bridge’ between autophagy and the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and it also plays an important role in the process of selective autophagy. Pathogenic microbial infections cause various diseases in both humans and animals, posing a great threat to public health. Increasing evidence has revealed that autophagy and autophagy receptors are involved in the life cycle of pathogenic microbial infections. The interaction between autophagy receptor and pathogenic microorganism not only affects the replication of these microorganisms in the host cell, but it also affects the host’s immune system. This review aims to discuss the effects of autophagy on pathogenic microbial infection and replication, and summarizes the mechanisms by which autophagy receptors interact with microorganisms. While considering the role of autophagy receptors in microbial infection, NDP52 might be a potential target for developing effective therapies to treat pathogenic microbial infections.

Dengue Virus Serotype 2 and Its Non-Structural Proteins 2A and 2B Activate NLRP3 Inflammasome

Dengue is the most prevalent and rapidly transmitted mosquito-borne viral disease of humans. One of the fundamental innate immune responses to viral infections includes the processing and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL-1β and IL-18) through the activation of inflammasome. Dengue virus stimulates the Nod-like receptor (NLRP3-specific inflammasome), however, the specific mechanism(s) by which dengue virus activates the NLRP3 inflammasome is unknown. In this study, we investigated the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in endothelial cells (HMEC-1) following dengue virus infection. Our results showed that dengue infection as well as the NS2A and NS2B protein expression increase the NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and further apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing caspase recruitment domain (ASC) oligomerization, and IL-1β secretion through caspase-1 activation. Specifically, we have demonstrated that NS2A and NS2B, two proteins of dengue virus that behave as putative viroporins, were sufficient to stimulate the NLRP3 inflammasome complex in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed endothelial cells. In summary, our observations provide insight into the dengue-induced inflammatory response mechanism and highlight the importance of DENV-2 NS2A and NS2B proteins in activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome during dengue virus infection.

Dual NDP52 Function in Persistent CSFV Infection

Viruses have evolved many mechanisms to escape host antiviral responses. Previously, we found that classical swine fever virus (CSFV) infection induces autophagy using the autophagosome as a self-replication site, thereby evading the host immune response and promoting long-term infection. However, the underlying mechanisms used by CSFV to enter autophagosomes and the mechanism by which autophagy promotes viral replication remain unclear. We found that CSFV infection inhibited autophagy receptor nuclear dot protein 52 kDa (NDP52) expression, ubiquitination, and SUMO2-4 modification. Further analyses revealed that CSFV mediated ubiquitination and SUMOylation of NDP52 via Pten-induced kinase 1 (PINK1)-Parkin. Moreover, NDP52 inhibition also inhibited CSFV replication and the induction of mitophagy marker proteins expression. Inhibition of NDP52 reduced CD63 expression and binding to CSFV E2 protein, which has an essential role in persistent CSFV infection. As NDP52 has a close relationship with the NF-κB innate immunity pathway and plays an important role in the antiviral response, we investigated whether NDP52 inhibited CSFV replication through the release of immune factors and antivirus signals. Our results showed that inhibiting NDP52 boosted interferon and TNF release and promoted NF-κB pathway activation. In summary, we found that NDP52 inhibition not only reduces CSFV binding and entry into autophagic vesicles, but also inhibits CSFV replication by active NF-κB antiviral immune pathways. Our data reveal a novel mechanism by which NDP52, an autophagy receptor, mediates CSFV infection, and provide new avenues for the development of antiviral strategies.

Apoptosis, Autophagy, and Pyroptosis: Immune Escape Strategies for Persistent Infection and Pathogenesis of Classical Swine Fever Virus

Classical swine fever (CSF) is a severe acute infectious disease that results from classical swine fever virus (CSFV) infection, which leads to serious economic losses in the porcine industry worldwide. In recent years, numerous studies related to the immune escape mechanism of the persistent infection and pathogenesis of CSFV have been performed. Remarkably, several independent groups have reported that apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis play a significant role in the occurrence and development of CSF, as well as in the immunological process. Apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis are the fundamental biological processes that maintain normal homeostatic and metabolic function in eukaryotic organisms. In general, these three cellular biological processes are always understood as an immune defense response initiated by the organism after perceiving a pathogen infection. Nevertheless, several viruses, including CSFV and other common pathogens such as hepatitis C and influenza A, have evolved strategies for infection and replication using these three cellular biological process mechanisms. In this review, we summarize the known roles of apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis in CSFV infection and how viruses manipulate these three cellular biological processes to evade the immune response.

A cloned classical swine fever virus derived from the vaccine strain GPE- causes cytopathic effect in CPK-NS cells via type-I interferon-dependent necroptosis

Classical swine fever viruses (CSFVs) do typically not show cytopathic effect (CPE) in cell culture, while some strains such as vaccine strain the GPE^- induce CPE in the swine kidney-derived CPK-NS cell line cultured in serum-free medium. These latter strains commonly lack N^pro-mediated inhibition of type-I interferon (IFN) induction. In order to explore the molecular mechanisms of GPE^--induced CPE, we analyzed the cellular pathways involved. In CPK-NS cells infected with the attenuated-vaccine-derived vGPE^- strain, both, apoptosis and necroptosis were induced. Necroptosis was type-I IFN-dependent and critical for visible CPE. In contrast, the parental virulent vALD-A76 strain did not induce any of these pathways nor CPE. We used reverse genetics to investigate which viral factors regulate these cell-death pathways. Interestingly, a mutant vGPE^- in which the N^pro function was restored to inhibit type-I IFN induction did not induce necroptosis nor CPE but still induced apoptosis, while an N^pro-mutant vALD-A76 incapable of inhibiting type-I IFN production induced necroptosis and CPE. Although E^rns of CSFV is reportedly involved in controlling apoptosis, apoptosis induction by vGPE^- or apoptosis inhibition by vALD-A76 were independent of the unique amino acid difference found in E^rns of these two strains. Altogether, these results demonstrate that type-I IFN-dependent necroptosis related to non-functional N^pro is the main mechanism for CPE induction by vGPE^-, and that viral factor(s) other than E^rns may induce or inhibit apoptosis in vGPE^- or vALD-A76 infected CPK-NS cells, respectively.