Tityus serrulatus (Scorpion): From the Crude Venom to the Construction of Synthetic Peptides and Their Possible Therapeutic Application Against Toxoplasma gondii Infection

A review on NLRP3 inflammasome modulation by animal venom proteins/peptides: mechanisms and therapeutic insights

The venom peptides from terrestrial as well as aquatic species have demonstrated potential in regulating the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a sophisticated assemblage present in immune cells responsible for detecting and responding to external mediators. The NLRP3 inflammasome plays a role in several pathological conditions such as type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, Alzheimer's disease, obesity, autoimmune disorders, and cardiovascular disorders. Venom peptides derived from animal venoms have been discovered to selectively induce certain signalling pathways, such as the NLRP3 inflammasome, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). Experimental evidence has demonstrated that venom peptides can regulate the expression and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, resulting in the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Furthermore, these peptides have been discovered to impede the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, therefore diminishing inflammation and tissue injury. The functional properties of venom proteins and peptides obtained from snakes, bees, wasps, and scorpions have been thoroughly investigated, specifically targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, venom proteins and peptides have shown promise as therapeutic agents for the treatment of certain inflammatory disorders. This review discusses the pathophysiology of NLRP3 inflammasome in the onset of various diseases, role of venom as therapeutics. Further, various venom components and their role in the modulation of NLRP3 inflammasome are discoursed. A substantial number of venomous animals and their toxins are yet unexplored, and to comprehensively grasp the mechanisms of action of them and their potential as therapeutic agents, additional research is required which can lead to the development of novel therapeutics.

Comprehensive Insights into the Development of Antitoxoplasmosis Drugs: Current Advances, Obstacles, and Future Perspectives

Current therapies for toxoplasmosis rely on a few drugs, most of which have severe side effects, and seeking ideal therapies for different types of toxoplasmosis is a long-term and challenging mission. Research and development (R&D) of novel drugs against Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) has focused on two main directions, the structural modification of lead compounds and natural products. Here we summarize the recent advances in the development of anti-T. gondii drugs from these two perspectives and provide comprehensive insights, reflecting on the advantages and selected molecules in each field. This review also focuses on the current obstacles to the development of novel anti-T. gondii agents, proposes comprehensive solutions, and facilitates future development.

The complex repertoire of Tityus spp. venoms: Advances on their composition and pharmacological potential of their toxins

Animal venoms are a rich and complex source of components, including peptides (such as neurotoxins, anionic peptides and hypotensins), lipids, proteins (such as proteases, hyaluronidases and phospholipases) and inorganic compounds, which affect all biological systems of the envenoming victim. Their action may result in a wide range of clinical manifestations, including tachy/bradycardia, hyper/hypotension, disorders in blood coagulation, pain, edema, inflammation, fever, muscle paralysis, coma and even death. Scorpions are one of the most studied venomous animals in the world and interesting bioactive molecules have been isolated and identified from their venoms over the years. Tityus spp. are among the scorpions with high number of accidents reported in the Americas, especially in Brazil. Their venoms have demonstrated interesting results in the search for novel agents with antimicrobial, anti-viral, anti-parasitic, hypotensive, immunomodulation, anti-insect, antitumor and/or antinociceptive activities. Furthermore, other recent activities still under investigation include drug delivery action, design of anti-epileptic drugs, investigation of sodium channel function, treatment of erectile disfunction and priapism, improvement of scorpion antivenom and chelating molecules activity. In this scenario, this paper focuses on reviewing advances on Tityus venom components mainly through the modern omics technologies as well as addressing potential therapeutic agents from their venoms and highlighting this abundant source of pharmacologically active molecules with biotechnological application.

Therapeutic potential of antimicrobial peptides against pathogenic protozoa

Protozoal infections cause significant morbidity and mortality in humans and animals. The use of several antiprotozoal drugs is associated with serious adverse effects and resistance development, and drugs that are more effective are urgently needed. Microorganisms, mammalian cells and fluids, insects, and reptiles are sources of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that act against pathogenic microorganisms; these AMPs have been widely studied as a promising alternative therapeutic option to conventional antibiotics, aiming to treat infections caused by multidrug-resistant pathogens. One advantage of AMP molecules is their adaptability, as they can be easily fine-tuned for broad-spectrum or targeted activity by changing the amino acid residues in their sequence. Consequently, these variations in structural and physicochemical properties can alter the antimicrobial activities of AMPs and decrease resistance development. This article presents an overview of peptide activities against amebiasis, giardiasis, trichomoniasis, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, malaria, and toxoplasmosis. AMPs and their analogs demonstrate great potential as therapeutics, with potent and selective activity, when compared with commercially available drugs, and hold the potential to act as new scaffolds for the development of novel anti-protozoal drugs.

Biomedical applications of synthetic peptides derived from venom of animal origin: A systematic review

Development of therapeutic agents that have fewer adverse effects and have higher efficacy for diseases, such as cancer, metabolic disorders, neurological diseases, infections, cardiovascular diseases, and respiratory diseases, are required. Recent studies have focused on identifying novel sources for pharmaceutical molecules to develop therapies against these diseases. Among the sources for potentially new therapies, animal venom-derived molecules have generated much interest. Various animal venom-derived proteins and peptides have been isolated, identified, synthesized, and tested to develop drugs. Venom-derived peptides have several biomedical properties, such as proapoptotic, cell migration, and autophagy regulation activities in cancer cell models; induction of vasodilation by nitric oxide and regulation of angiotensin II; modification of insulin response by controlling calcium and potassium channels; regulation of pain receptor activity; modulation of immune cell activity; alteration of motor neuron activity; degradation or inhibition of β-amyloid plaque formation; antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antiprotozoal activities; increase in sperm motility and potentiation of erectile function; reduction of intraocular pressure; anticoagulation, fibrinolytic, and antithrombotic activities; etc. This systematic review compiles these biomedical properties and potential biomedical applications of synthesized animal venom-derived peptides reported in the latest research. In addition, the limitations and areas of opportunity in this research field are discussed so that new studies can be developed based on the data presented.

Peptides with Diverse Functions from Scorpion Venom: A Great Opportunity for the Treatment of a Wide Variety of Diseases

Toxicology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran

The venom glands are a rich source of biologically important peptides with pharmaceutical properties. Scorpion venoms have been identified as a reservoir for components that might be considered as great candidates for drug development. Pharmacological properties of the venom compounds have been confirmed in the treatment of different disorders. Ion channel blockers and AMPs are the main groups of scorpion venom components. Despite the existence of several studies about scorpion peptides, there are still valuable components to be discovered. Additionally, owing to the improvement of proteomics and transcriptomics, the number of peptide drugs is steadily increasing, which reflects the importance of these medications. This review evaluates available literatures on some important scorpion venom peptides with pharmaceutical activities. Given that the last three years have been dominated by the COVID-19 from the medical/pharmaceutical perspective, scorpion compounds with the potential against the coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are discussed in this review.

Animal venoms: a novel source of anti-Toxoplasma gondii drug candidates

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a nucleated intracellular parasitic protozoan with a broad host selectivity. It causes toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised or immunodeficient patients. The currently available treatments for toxoplasmosis have significant side effects as well as certain limitations, and the development of vaccines remains to be explored. Animal venoms are considered to be an important source of novel antimicrobial agents. Some peptides from animal venoms have amphipathic alpha-helix structures. They inhibit the growth of pathogens by targeting membranes to produce lethal pores and cause membrane rupture. Venom molecules generally possess immunomodulatory properties and play key roles in the suppression of pathogenic organisms. Here, we summarized literatures of the last 15 years on the interaction of animal venom peptides with T. gondii and attempt to explore the mechanisms of their interaction with parasites that involve membrane and organelle damage, immune response regulation and ion homeostasis. Finally, we analyzed some limitations of venom peptides for drug therapy and some insights into their development in future studies. It is hoped that more research will be stimulated to turn attention to the medical value of animal venoms in toxoplasmosis.

Antimicrobial Activity Developed by Scorpion Venoms and Its Peptide Component

Microbial infections represent a problem of great importance at the public health level, with a high rate of morbidity-mortality worldwide. However, treating the different diseases generated by microorganisms requires a gradual increase in acquired resistance when applying or using them against various antibiotic therapies. Resistance is caused by various molecular mechanisms of microorganisms, thus reducing their effectiveness. Consequently, there is a need to search for new opportunities through natural sources with antimicrobial activity. One alternative is using peptides present in different scorpion venoms, specifically from the Buthidae family. Different peptides with biological activity in microorganisms have been characterized as preventing their growth or inhibiting their replication. Therefore, they represent an alternative to be used in the design and development of new-generation antimicrobial drugs in different types of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. Essential aspects for its disclosure, as shown in this review, are the studies carried out on different types of peptides in scorpion venoms with activity against pathogenic microorganisms, highlighting their high therapeutic potential.

Bioactive Antimicrobial Peptides: A New Weapon to Counteract Zoonosis

Zoonoses have recently become the center of attention of the general population and scientific community. Notably, more than 30 new human pathogens have been identified in the last 30 years, 75% of which can be classified as zoonosis. The complete eradication of such types of infections is far out of reach, considering the limited understanding of animal determinants in zoonoses and their causes of emergence. Therefore, efforts must be doubled in examining the spread, persistence, and pathogenicity of zoonosis and studying possible clinical interventions and antimicrobial drug development. The search for antimicrobial bioactive compounds has assumed great emphasis, considering the emergence of multi-drug-resistant microorganisms. Among the biomolecules of emerging scientific interest are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), potent biomolecules that can potentially act as important weapons against infectious diseases. Moreover, synthetic AMPs are easily tailored (bioinformatically) to target specific features of the pathogens to hijack, inducing no or very low resistance. Although very promising, previous studies on SAMPs' efficacy are still at their early stages. Indeed, further studies and better characterization on their mechanism of action with in vitro and in vivo assays are needed so as to proceed to their clinical application on human beings.

Future Directions for the Discovery of Natural Product-Derived Immunomodulating Drugs

Drug discovery from natural sources is going through a renaissance, having spent many decades in the shadow of synthetic molecule drug discovery, despite the fact that natural product-derived compounds occupy a much greater chemical space than those created through synthetic chemistry methods. With this new era comes new possibilities, not least the novel targets that have emerged in recent times and the development of state-of-the-art technologies that can be applied to drug discovery from natural sources. Although progress has been made with some immunomodulating drugs, there remains a pressing need for new agents that can be used to treat the wide variety of conditions that arise from disruption, or over-activation, of the immune system; natural products may therefore be key in filling this gap. Recognising that, at present, there is no authoritative article that details the current state-of-the-art of the immunomodulatory activity of natural products, this in-depth review has arisen from a joint effort between the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Natural Products and Immunopharmacology, with contributions from a Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation number of world-leading researchers in the field of natural product drug discovery, to provide a "position statement" on what natural products has to offer in the search for new immunomodulatory argents. To this end, we provide a historical look at previous discoveries of naturally occurring immunomodulators, present a picture of the current status of the field and provide insight into the future opportunities and challenges for the discovery of new drugs to treat immune-related diseases.