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Nokelainen O, Silvasti SA, Strauss SY, Wahlberg N, Mappes J. Predator selection on phenotypic variability of cryptic and aposematic moths. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1678. [PMID: 38395999 PMCID: PMC10891176 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45329-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Natural selection generally favours phenotypic variability in camouflaged organisms, whereas aposematic organisms are expected to evolve a more uniform warning coloration. However, no comprehensive analysis of the phenotypic consequences of predator selection in aposematic and cryptic species exists. Using state-of-the-art image analysis, we examine 2800 wing images of 82 moth species accessed via three online museum databases. We test whether anti-predator strategy (i.e., camouflage or aposematism) explains intraspecific variation in wing colour and pattern across northern hemisphere moths. In addition, we test two mutually non-exclusive, ecological hypotheses to explain variation in colour pattern: diel-activity or dietary-niche. In this work, taking into account phylogenetic relationships, moth phenotypic variability is best explained by anti-predator strategy with camouflaged moths being more variable in wing patterning than aposematic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ossi Nokelainen
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Viikki Biocenter 3, P.O. Box 65, 40014, Helsinki, Finland.
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, Jyväskylä, Finland.
- Open Science Centre, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - Sanni A Silvasti
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Sharon Y Strauss
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California at Davis, 2320 Storer Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstrasse 19, Berlin, 14193, Germany
| | - Niklas Wahlberg
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, SE-223 62, Lund, Sweden
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Viikki Biocenter 3, P.O. Box 65, 40014, Helsinki, Finland.
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstrasse 19, Berlin, 14193, Germany.
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2
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Protti-Sánchez F, Mayer U, Rowland HM. In paired preference tests, domestic chicks innately choose the colour green over red, and the shape of a frog over a sphere when both stimuli are green. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:1973-1983. [PMID: 37610527 PMCID: PMC10769926 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01821-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Many animals express unlearned colour preferences that depend on the context in which signals are encountered. These colour biases may have evolved in response to the signalling system to which they relate. For example, many aposematic animals advertise their unprofitability with red warning signals. Predators' innate biases against these warning colours have been suggested as one of the potential explanations for the initial evolution of aposematism. It is unclear, however, whether unlearned colour preferences reported in a number of species is truly an innate behaviour or whether it is based on prior experience. We tested the spontaneous colour and shape preferences of dark-hatched, unfed, and visually naive domestic chicks (Gallus gallus). In four experiments, we presented chicks with a choice between either red (a colour typically associated with warning patterns) or green (a colour associated with palatable cryptic prey), volume-matched spheres (representing a generalised fruit shape) or frogs (representing an aposematic animal's shape). Chicks innately preferred green stimuli and avoided red. Chicks also preferred the shape of a frog over a sphere when both stimuli were green. However, no preference for frogs over spheres was present when stimuli were red. Male chicks that experienced a bitter taste of quinine immediately before the preference test showed a higher preference for green frog-shaped stimuli. Our results suggest that newly hatched chicks innately integrate colour and shape cues during decision making, and that this can be augmented by other sensory experiences. Innate and experience-based behaviour could confer a fitness advantage to novel aposematic prey, and favour the initial evolution of conspicuous colouration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Protti-Sánchez
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Uwe Mayer
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Piazza Manifattura 1, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans Knöll Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
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3
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Wan YC, Navarrete Méndez MJ, O'Connell LA, Uricchio LH, Roland AB, Maan ME, Ron SR, Betancourth-Cundar M, Pie MR, Howell KA, Richards-Zawacki CL, Cummings ME, Cannatella DC, Santos JC, Tarvin RD. Selection on Visual Opsin Genes in Diurnal Neotropical Frogs and Loss of the SWS2 Opsin in Poison Frogs. Mol Biol Evol 2023; 40:msad206. [PMID: 37791477 PMCID: PMC10548314 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msad206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Amphibians are ideal for studying visual system evolution because their biphasic (aquatic and terrestrial) life history and ecological diversity expose them to a broad range of visual conditions. Here, we evaluate signatures of selection on visual opsin genes across Neotropical anurans and focus on three diurnal clades that are well-known for the concurrence of conspicuous colors and chemical defense (i.e., aposematism): poison frogs (Dendrobatidae), Harlequin toads (Bufonidae: Atelopus), and pumpkin toadlets (Brachycephalidae: Brachycephalus). We found evidence of positive selection on 44 amino acid sites in LWS, SWS1, SWS2, and RH1 opsin genes, of which one in LWS and two in RH1 have been previously identified as spectral tuning sites in other vertebrates. Given that anurans have mostly nocturnal habits, the patterns of selection revealed new sites that might be important in spectral tuning for frogs, potentially for adaptation to diurnal habits and for color-based intraspecific communication. Furthermore, we provide evidence that SWS2, normally expressed in rod cells in frogs and some salamanders, has likely been lost in the ancestor of Dendrobatidae, suggesting that under low-light levels, dendrobatids have inferior wavelength discrimination compared to other frogs. This loss might follow the origin of diurnal activity in dendrobatids and could have implications for their behavior. Our analyses show that assessments of opsin diversification in across taxa could expand our understanding of the role of sensory system evolution in ecological adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Chen Wan
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - María José Navarrete Méndez
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Museo de Zoología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | | | - Lawrence H Uricchio
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
| | - Alexandre-Benoit Roland
- FAS Center for Systems Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition (CRCA), Centre for Integrative Biology (CBI), UMR5169 CNRS, Toulouse University, Toulouse, France
| | - Martine E Maan
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Santiago R Ron
- Museo de Zoología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | | | - Marcio R Pie
- Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
- Biology Department, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, United Kingdom
| | - Kimberly A Howell
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Molly E Cummings
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - David C Cannatella
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Biodiversity Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Juan C Santos
- Department of Biological Sciences, St. John's University, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Rebecca D Tarvin
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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4
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Gonzalez M, Carazzone C. Eco-Metabolomics Applied to the Chemical Ecology of Poison Frogs (Dendrobatoidea). J Chem Ecol 2023; 49:570-598. [PMID: 37594619 PMCID: PMC10725362 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-023-01443-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
Amphibians are one of the most remarkable sources of unique natural products. Biogenic amines, peptides, bufodienolides, alkaloids, and volatile organic compounds have been characterized in different species. The superfamily Dendrobatoidea represents one of the most enigmatic cases of study in chemical ecology because their skin secretome is composed by a complex mixture (i.e. cocktail) of highly lethal and noxious unique alkaloid structures. While chemical defences from dendrobatoids (families Dendrobatidae and Aromobatidae) have been investigated employing ecological, behavioral, phylogenetic and evolutionary perspectives, studies about the analytical techniques needed to perform the chemical characterization have been neglected for many years. Therefore, our aim is to summarize the current methods applied for the characterization of chemical profiles in dendrobatoids and to illustrate innovative Eco-metabolomics strategies that could be translated to this study model. This approach could be extended to natural products other than alkaloids and implemented for the chemical analysis of different species of dendrobatoids employing both low- and high-resolution mass spectrometers. Here, we overview important biological features to be considered, procedures that could be applied to perform the chemical characterization, steps and tools to perform an Eco-metabolomic analysis, and a final discussion about future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mabel Gonzalez
- Department of Chemistry, Universidad de los Andes, 4976, Bogotá, AA, Colombia.
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Chiara Carazzone
- Department of Chemistry, Universidad de los Andes, 4976, Bogotá, AA, Colombia.
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5
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Exnerová A, Kang C, Rowland HM, Kikuchi DW. Evolution of multiple prey defences: From predator cognition to community ecology. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:961-966. [PMID: 37449469 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - David W Kikuchi
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
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6
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Yeager J, Penacchio O. Outcomes of multifarious selection on the evolution of visual signals. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230327. [PMID: 37040810 PMCID: PMC10089717 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Multifarious sources of selection shape visual signals and can produce phenotypic divergence. Theory predicts that variance in warning signals should be minimal due to purifying selection, yet polymorphism is abundant. While in some instances divergent signals can evolve into discrete morphs, continuously variable phenotypes are also encountered in natural populations. Notwithstanding, we currently have an incomplete understanding of how combinations of selection shape fitness landscapes, particularly those which produce polymorphism. We modelled how combinations of natural and sexual selection act on aposematic traits within a single population to gain insights into what combinations of selection favours the evolution and maintenance of phenotypic variation. With a rich foundation of studies on selection and phenotypic divergence, we reference the poison frog genus Oophaga to model signal evolution. Multifarious selection on aposematic traits created the topology of our model's fitness landscape by approximating different scenarios found in natural populations. Combined, the model produced all types of phenotypic variation found in frog populations, namely monomorphism, continuous variation and discrete polymorphism. Our results afford advances into how multifarious selection shapes phenotypic divergence, which, along with additional modelling enhancements, will allow us to further our understanding of visual signal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Yeager
- Grupo de Investigación en Biodiversidad, Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencas Aplicadas, Universidad de Las Américas, Ecuador
| | - Olivier Penacchio
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9JP, UK
- Computer Vision Center, Computer Science Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
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7
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Stavenga DG, Leertouwer HL, Arikawa K. Butterfly Wing Translucence Enables Enhanced Visual Signaling. INSECTS 2023; 14:234. [PMID: 36975919 PMCID: PMC10057065 DOI: 10.3390/insects14030234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The light reflected by the dorsal side of butterfly wings often functions as a signal for, e.g., mate choice, thermoregulation, and/or predator deterrence, while the ventral wing reflections are generally used for crypsis and camouflage. Here, we propose that transmitted light can also have an important role in visual signaling because, in many butterfly species, the dorsal and ventral wing sides are similarly patterned and locally more or less translucent. Extreme examples are the Japanese yellow swallowtail (Papilio xuthus Linnaeus, 1758) and the Yellow glassy tiger (Parantica aspasia Fabricius, 1787). Their wings exhibit a similar color pattern in reflected and transmitted light, which allows enhanced visual signaling, especially in flight. Contrasting cases in which the coloration and patterning of dorsal and ventral wings strongly differ are the papilionid Papilio nireus Linnaeus, 1758, and the pierid Delias nigrina Fabricius, 1775. The wings observed in reflected or transmitted light then show very different color patterns. Wing translucence thus will strongly affect a butterfly's visual signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doekele G. Stavenga
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Science, University of Groningen, NL9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Heinrich L. Leertouwer
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Science, University of Groningen, NL9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Kentaro Arikawa
- Research Center for Integrative Evolutionary Science, Sokendai-Hayama, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Hayama 240-0193, Japan
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8
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Experimental evidence in a poison frog model suggests that tadpole transport on the dorsum may affects warning signal effectiveness in poison frogs. Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10219-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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9
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Stuckert AMM, Summers K. Investigating signal modalities of aposematism in a poison frog. J Evol Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam M. M. Stuckert
- Department of Biology East Carolina University Greenville North Carolina USA
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry University of Houston Houston Texas USA
| | - Kyle Summers
- Department of Biology East Carolina University Greenville North Carolina USA
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10
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Pereira Martins AR, Martins LP, Ho W, McMillan WO, Ready JS, Barrett R. Scale-dependent environmental effects on phenotypic distributions in Heliconius butterflies. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9286. [PMID: 36177141 PMCID: PMC9471044 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying the relative importance of different mechanisms responsible for the emergence and maintenance of phenotypic diversity can be challenging, as multiple selective pressures and stochastic events are involved in these processes. Therefore, testing how environmental conditions shape the distribution of phenotypes can offer important insights on local adaptation, divergence, and speciation. The red-yellow Müllerian mimicry ring of Heliconius butterflies exhibits a wide diversity of color patterns across the Neotropics and is involved in multiple hybrid zones, making it a powerful system to investigate environmental drivers of phenotypic distributions. Using the distantly related Heliconius erato and Heliconius melpomene co-mimics and a multiscale distribution approach, we investigated whether distinct phenotypes of these species are associated with different environmental conditions. We show that Heliconius red-yellow phenotypic distribution is strongly driven by environmental gradients (especially thermal and precipitation variables), but that phenotype and environment associations vary with spatial scale. While co-mimics are usually predicted to occur in similar environments at large spatial scales, patterns at local scales are not always consistent (i.e., different variables are best predictors of phenotypic occurrence in different locations) or congruent (i.e., co-mimics show distinct associations with environment). We suggest that large-scale analyses are important for identifying how environmental factors shape broad mimetic phenotypic distributions, but that local studies are essential to understand the context-dependent biotic, abiotic, and historical mechanisms driving finer-scale phenotypic transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ananda R. Pereira Martins
- Redpath MuseumMcGill UniversityMontrealQuebecCanada,Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
| | - Lucas P. Martins
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of CanterburyChristchurchNew Zealand
| | | | | | - Jonathan S. Ready
- Instituto de Ciências BiológicasUniversidade Federal do ParáBelémBrazil
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11
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Betancourth-Cundar M, Palacios-Rodriguez P. Reproductive behaviors promote ecological and phenotypic sexual differentiation in the critically endangered Lehmann’s poison frog. Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10207-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AbstractTerritoriality and parental care are complex reproductive behaviors found in many taxa from insects to mammals. Parental care can be carried out by the female, the male, or both, depending on the species. Territoriality, in contrast, is predominantly displayed by males. Different selective pressures imposed on individuals from the sex performing territorial or parental care behaviors may also lead to sexual differentiation in other life-history traits. Due to their territorial behavior and their diversity of parental care behaviors, Neotropical poison frogs are an excellent study system to investigate whether behavioral traits can influence sexual differentiation in intrinsic or extrinsic traits of individuals. Here, we evaluate whether territorial and parental care behaviors mediate sexual differentiation in ecological (habitat use) and phenotypic (coloration, morphology) traits in the critically endangered Lehmann’s poison frog (Oophaga lehmanni), a species in which males defend territories while females provide parental care. We found sex differences in habitat use and morphological traits, but not in coloration. Males use trunks and green leaves as perches more frequently and are found on higher substrates, than females. We found no sex differences in body size, but females have longer arms than males, which is probably associated with their parental duties (climbing trees to feed the tadpoles). Altogether, our results provide evidence that selection pressures act differently on male and female traits, and that territoriality and parental care may promote the evolution of sexual differentiation in dendrobatids. Long-term wildlife observations are essential to identify important life-history traits and to evaluate hypotheses about the behavioral ecology and conservation of this and other vertebrate species.
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12
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Carotenoid intake during early life mediates ontogenetic colour shifts and dynamic colour change during adulthood. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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13
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Nokelainen O, Galarza JA, Kirvesoja J, Suisto K, Mappes J. Genetic colour variation visible for predators and conspecifics is concealed from humans in a polymorphic moth. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:467-478. [PMID: 35239231 PMCID: PMC9314616 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The definition of colour polymorphism is intuitive: genetic variants express discretely coloured phenotypes. This classification is, however, elusive as humans form subjective categories or ignore differences that cannot be seen by human eyes. We demonstrate an example of a ‘cryptic morph’ in a polymorphic wood tiger moth (Arctia plantaginis), a phenomenon that may be common among well‐studied species. We used pedigree data from nearly 20,000 individuals to infer the inheritance of hindwing colouration. The evidence supports a single Mendelian locus with two alleles in males: WW and Wy produce the white and yy the yellow hindwing colour. The inheritance could not be resolved in females as their hindwing colour varies continuously with no clear link with male genotypes. Next, we investigated if the male genotype can be predicted from their phenotype by machine learning algorithms and by human observers. Linear discriminant analysis grouped male genotypes with 97% accuracy, whereas humans could only group the yy genotype. Using vision modelling, we also tested whether the genotypes have differential discriminability to humans, moth conspecifics and their bird predators. The human perception was poor separating the genotypes, but avian and moth vision models with ultraviolet sensitivity could separate white WW and Wy males. We emphasize the importance of objective methodology when studying colour polymorphism. Our findings indicate that by‐eye categorization methods may be problematic, because humans fail to see differences that can be visible for relevant receivers. Ultimately, receivers equipped with different perception than ours may impose selection to morphs hidden from human sight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ossi Nokelainen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Juan A Galarza
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jimi Kirvesoja
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Kaisa Suisto
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
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14
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Abstract
Aposematism and mimicry are complex phenomena which have been studied extensively; however, much of our knowledge comes from just a few focal groups, especially butterflies. Aposematic species combine a warning signal with a secondary defense that reduces their profitability as prey. Aculeate hymenopterans are an extremely diverse lineage defined by the modification of the ovipositor into a stinger which represents a potent defense against predators. Aculeates are often brightly colored and broadly mimicked by members of other arthropod groups including Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Araneae. However, aculeates are surprisingly understudied as aposematic and mimetic model organisms. Recent studies have described novel pigments contributing to warning coloration in insects and identified changes in cis-regulatory elements as potential drivers of color pattern evolution. Many biotic and abiotic factors contribute to the evolution and maintenance of conspicuous color patterns. Predator distribution and diversity seem to influence the phenotypic diversity of aposematic velvet ants while studies on bumble bees underscore the importance of intermediate mimetic phenotypes in transition zones between putative mimicry rings. Aculeate hymenopterans are attractive models for studying sex-based intraspecific mimicry as male aculeates lack the defense conferred by the females’ stinger. In some species, evolution of male and female color patterns appears to be decoupled. Future studies on aposematic aculeates and their associated mimics hold great promise for unraveling outstanding questions about the evolution of conspicuous color patterns and the factors which determine the composition and distribution of mimetic communities.
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16
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Lyra ML, Monteiro JPC, Rancilhac L, Irisarri I, Künzel S, Sanchez E, Condez TH, Rojas-Padilla O, Solé M, Toledo LF, Haddad CFB, Vences M. Initial Phylotranscriptomic Confirmation of Homoplastic Evolution of the Conspicuous Coloration and Bufoniform Morphology of Pumpkin-Toadlets in the Genus Brachycephalus. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:816. [PMID: 34822600 PMCID: PMC8620806 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Brachycephalus is a fascinating group of miniaturized anurans from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, comprising the conspicuous, brightly colored pumpkin-toadlets and the cryptic flea-toads. Pumpkin-toadlets are known to contain tetrodotoxins and therefore, their bright colors may perform an aposematic function. Previous studies based on a limited number of mitochondrial and nuclear-encoded markers supported the existence of two clades containing species of pumpkin-toadlet phenotype, but deep nodes remained largely unresolved or conflicting between data sets. We use new RNAseq data of 17 individuals from nine Brachycephalus species to infer their evolutionary relationships from a phylogenomic perspective. Analyses of almost 5300 nuclear-encoded ortholog protein-coding genes and full mitochondrial genomes confirmed the existence of two separate pumpkin-toadlet clades, suggesting the convergent evolution (or multiple reversals) of the bufoniform morphology, conspicuous coloration, and probably toxicity. In addition, the study of the mitochondrial gene order revealed that three species (B. hermogenesi, B. pitanga, and B. rotenbergae) display translocations of different tRNAs (NCY and CYA) from the WANCY tRNA cluster to a position between the genes ATP6 and COIII, showing a new mitochondrial gene order arrangement for vertebrates. The newly clarified phylogeny suggests that Brachycephalus has the potential to become a promising model taxon to understand the evolution of coloration, body plan and toxicity. Given that toxicity information is available for only few species of Brachycephalus, without data for any flea-toad species, we also emphasize the need for a wider screening of toxicity across species, together with more in-depth functional and ecological study of their phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana L. Lyra
- Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Biodiversidade (Campus Rio Claro), Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Avenida 24A, N 1515, Bela Vista, Rio Claro 13506-900, SP, Brazil; (M.L.L.); (J.P.C.M.); (C.F.B.H.)
| | - Juliane P. C. Monteiro
- Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Biodiversidade (Campus Rio Claro), Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Avenida 24A, N 1515, Bela Vista, Rio Claro 13506-900, SP, Brazil; (M.L.L.); (J.P.C.M.); (C.F.B.H.)
| | - Loïs Rancilhac
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (L.R.); (E.S.)
| | - Iker Irisarri
- Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Goldschmidtstr, 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany;
| | - Sven Künzel
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany;
| | - Eugenia Sanchez
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (L.R.); (E.S.)
| | - Thais H. Condez
- Unidade Passos, Universidade do Estado de Minas Gerais (UEMG), Avenida Juca Stockler 1130, Passos 37900-106, MG, Brazil;
| | - Omar Rojas-Padilla
- Laboratório de Sistemática de Vertebrados, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga 6681, Porto Alegre 90619-900, RS, Brazil;
| | - Mirco Solé
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus 45662-900, BA, Brazil;
| | - Luís Felipe Toledo
- Laboratório de História Natural de Anfíbios Brasileiros (LaHNAB), Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, SP, Brazil;
| | - Célio F. B. Haddad
- Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Biodiversidade (Campus Rio Claro), Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Avenida 24A, N 1515, Bela Vista, Rio Claro 13506-900, SP, Brazil; (M.L.L.); (J.P.C.M.); (C.F.B.H.)
| | - Miguel Vences
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (L.R.); (E.S.)
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17
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Nokelainen O, de Moraes Rezende F, Valkonen JK, Mappes J. Context-dependent coloration of prey and predator decision making in contrasting light environments. Behav Ecol 2021; 33:77-86. [PMID: 35197807 PMCID: PMC8857938 DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
A big question in behavioral ecology is what drives diversity of color signals. One possible explanation is that environmental conditions, such as light environment, may alter visual signaling of prey, which could affect predator decision-making. Here, we tested the context-dependent predator selection on prey coloration. In the first experiment, we tested detectability of artificial visual stimuli to blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) by manipulating stimulus luminance and chromatic context of the background. We expected the presence of the chromatic context to facilitate faster target detection. As expected, blue tits found targets on chromatic yellow background faster than on achromatic grey background whereas in the latter, targets were found with smaller contrast differences to the background. In the second experiment, we tested the effect of two light environments on the survival of aposematic, color polymorphic wood tiger moth (Arctia plantaginis). As luminance contrast should be more detectable than chromatic contrast in low light intensities, we expected birds, if they find the moths aversive, to avoid the white morph which is more conspicuous than the yellow morph in low light (and vice versa in bright light). Alternatively, birds may attack first moths that are more detectable. We found birds to attack yellow moths first in low light conditions, whereas white moths were attacked first more frequently in bright light conditions. Our results show that light environments affect predator foraging decisions, which may facilitate context-dependent selection on visual signals and diversity of prey phenotypes in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ossi Nokelainen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Francisko de Moraes Rezende
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Viikki Biocenter 3, Helsinki, Finland
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18
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Duffy MA, García-Robledo C, Gordon SP, Grant NA, Green DA, Kamath A, Penczykowski RM, Rebolleda-Gómez M, Wale N, Zaman L. Model Systems in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior: A Call for Diversity in Our Model Systems and Discipline. Am Nat 2021; 198:53-68. [PMID: 34143717 DOI: 10.1086/714574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractEcologists and evolutionary biologists are fascinated by life's variation but also seek to understand phenomena and mechanisms that apply broadly across taxa. Model systems can help us extract generalities from amid all the wondrous diversity, but only if we choose and develop them carefully, use them wisely, and have a range of model systems from which to choose. In this introduction to the Special Feature on Model Systems in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB), we begin by grappling with the question, What is a model system? We then explore where our model systems come from, in terms of the skills and other attributes required to develop them and the historical biases that influence traditional model systems in EEB. We emphasize the importance of communities of scientists in the success of model systems-narrow scientific communities can restrict the model organisms themselves. We also consider how our discipline was built around one type of "model scientist"-a history still reflected in the field. This lack of diversity in EEB is unjust and also narrows the field's perspective, including by restricting the questions asked and talents used to answer them. Increasing diversity, equity, and inclusion will require acting at many levels, including structural changes. Diversity in EEB, in both model systems and the scientists who use them, strengthens our discipline.
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19
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Krivoruchko K, Goldshtein A, Boonman A, Eitan O, Ben-Simon J, Thong VD, Yovel Y. Fireflies produce ultrasonic clicks during flight as a potential aposematic anti-bat signal. iScience 2021; 24:102194. [PMID: 33733061 PMCID: PMC7937554 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Fireflies are known for emitting light signals for intraspecific communication. However, in doing so, they reveal themselves to many potential nocturnal predators from a large distance. Therefore, many fireflies evolved unpalatable compounds and probably use their light signals as anti-predator aposematic signals. Fireflies are occasionally attacked by predators despite their warning flashes. Bats are among the most substantial potential firefly predators. Using their echolocation, bats might detect a firefly from a short distance and attack it in between two flashes. We thus aimed to examine whether fireflies use additional measures of warning, specifically focusing on sound signals. We recorded four species from different genera of fireflies in Vietnam and Israel and found that all of them generated ultrasonic clicks centered around bats' hearing range. Clicks were synchronized with the wingbeat and are probably produced by the wings. We hypothesize that ultrasonic clicks can serve as part of a multimodal aposematic display.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ksenia Krivoruchko
- Department of Neuroscience, Rappaport Research Institute and Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Aya Goldshtein
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Arjan Boonman
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ofri Eitan
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Jonathan Ben-Simon
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Vu Dinh Thong
- Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, VAST, Cầu Giấy, Hà Nội, Vietnam
- Graduate University of Science and Technology, VAST, Cầu Giấy, Hà Nội, Vietnam
| | - Yossi Yovel
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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20
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Corral‐Lopez A, Varg JE, Cano‐Cobos YP, Losada R, Realpe E, Outomuro D. Field evidence for colour mimicry overshadowing morphological mimicry. J Anim Ecol 2021; 90:698-709. [PMID: 33300609 PMCID: PMC7986869 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Imperfect mimicry may be maintained when the various components of an aposematic signal have different salience for predators. Experimental laboratory studies provide robust evidence for this phenomenon. Yet, evidence from natural settings remains scarce. We studied how natural bird predators assess multiple features in a multicomponent aposematic signal in the Neotropical 'clear wing complex' mimicry ring, dominated by glasswing butterflies. We evaluated two components of the aposematic signal, wing colouration and wing morphology, in a predation experiment based on artificial replicas of glasswing butterflies (model) and Polythoridae damselflies (mimics) in their natural habitat. We also studied the extent of the colour aposematic signal in the local insect community. Finally, we inspected the nanostructures responsible for this convergent colour signal, expected to highly differ between these phylogenetically distinct species. Our results provide direct evidence for a stronger salience of wing colouration than wing morphology, as well as stronger selection on imperfect than in perfect colour mimics. Additionally, investigations of how birds perceive wing colouration of the local insect community provides further evidence that a UV-reflective white colouration is being selected as the colour aposematic signal of the mimicry ring. Using electron microscopy, we also suggest that damselflies have convergently evolved the warning colouration through a pre-adaptation. These findings provide a solid complement to previous experimental evidence suggesting a key influence of the cognitive assessment of predators driving the evolution of aposematic signals and mimicry rings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Corral‐Lopez
- Department of Ethology/ZoologyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research CentreUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
| | - Javier Edo Varg
- Section for Animal EcologyDepartment of Ecology and GeneticsEvolutionary Biology CentreUppsala UniversityUppsalaSweden
| | - Yiselle P. Cano‐Cobos
- Laboratorio de Zoología y Ecología AcuáticaDepartamento de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad de los AndesBogotáColombia
| | - Rafael Losada
- Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical (CIMPAT)Departamento de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad de los AndesBogotáColombia
| | - Emilio Realpe
- Laboratorio de Zoología y Ecología AcuáticaDepartamento de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad de los AndesBogotáColombia
| | - David Outomuro
- Section for Animal EcologyDepartment of Ecology and GeneticsEvolutionary Biology CentreUppsala UniversityUppsalaSweden
- Present address:
Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of CincinnatiRieveschl HallCincinnatiOH45221USA
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21
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Akopyan M, Gompert Z, Klonoski K, Vega A, Kaiser K, Mackelprang R, Rosenblum EB, Robertson JM. Genetic and phenotypic evidence of a contact zone between divergent colour morphs of the iconic red-eyed treefrog. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:4442-4456. [PMID: 32945036 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Hybrid zones act as natural laboratories where divergent genomes interact, providing powerful systems for examining the evolutionary processes underlying biological diversity. In this study, we characterized patterns of genomic and phenotypic variation resulting from hybridization between divergent intraspecific lineages of the Neotropical red-eyed treefrog (Agalychnis callidryas). We found genetic evidence of a newly discovered contact zone and phenotypic novelty in leg colour-a trait suspected to play a role in mediating assortative mating in this species. Analysis of hybrid ancestry revealed an abundance of later-generation Fn individuals, suggesting persistence of hybrids in the contact zone. Hybrids are predominantly of southern ancestry but are phenotypically more similar to northern populations. Genome-wide association mapping revealed QTL with measurable effects on leg-colour variation, but further work is required to dissect the architecture of this trait and establish causal links. Further, genomic cline analyses indicated substantial variation in patterns of introgression across the genome. Directional introgression of loci associated with different aspects of leg colour are inherited from each parental lineage, creating a distinct hybrid colour pattern. We show that hybridization can generate new phenotypes, revealing the evolutionary processes that potentially underlie patterns of phenotypic diversity in this iconic polytypic frog. Our study is consistent with a role of hybridization and sexual selection in lineage diversification, evolutionary processes that have been implicated in accelerating divergence in the most phenotypically diverse species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Akopyan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, CA, USA
| | | | - Karina Klonoski
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Kristine Kaiser
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, CA, USA
| | | | - Erica Bree Rosenblum
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
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22
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Darragh K, Montejo‐Kovacevich G, Kozak KM, Morrison CR, Figueiredo CME, Ready JS, Salazar C, Linares M, Byers KJRP, Merrill RM, McMillan WO, Schulz S, Jiggins CD. Species specificity and intraspecific variation in the chemical profiles of Heliconius butterflies across a large geographic range. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:3895-3918. [PMID: 32489619 PMCID: PMC7244815 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In many animals, mate choice is important for the maintenance of reproductive isolation between species. Traits important for mate choice and behavioral isolation are predicted to be under strong stabilizing selection within species; however, such traits can also exhibit variation at the population level driven by neutral and adaptive evolutionary processes. Here, we describe patterns of divergence among androconial and genital chemical profiles at inter- and intraspecific levels in mimetic Heliconius butterflies. Most variation in chemical bouquets was found between species, but there were also quantitative differences at the population level. We found a strong correlation between interspecific chemical and genetic divergence, but this correlation varied in intraspecific comparisons. We identified "indicator" compounds characteristic of particular species that included compounds already known to elicit a behavioral response, suggesting an approach for identification of candidate compounds for future behavioral studies in novel systems. Overall, the strong signal of species identity suggests a role for these compounds in species recognition, but with additional potentially neutral variation at the population level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathy Darragh
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
| | | | | | - Colin R. Morrison
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
- Department of Integrative BiologyThe University of Texas at AustinAustinTXUSA
| | | | - Jonathan S. Ready
- Institute for Biological SciencesUniversidade Federal do ParáBelémBrazil
| | - Camilo Salazar
- Biology ProgramFaculty of Natural Sciences and MathematicsUniversidad del RosarioBogotaColombia
| | - Mauricio Linares
- Biology ProgramFaculty of Natural Sciences and MathematicsUniversidad del RosarioBogotaColombia
| | - Kelsey J. R. P. Byers
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
| | - Richard M. Merrill
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
- Division of Evolutionary BiologyFaculty of BiologyLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
| | | | - Stefan Schulz
- Institute of Organic ChemistryTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
| | - Chris D. Jiggins
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
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23
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Abstract
Abstract
Animals are often confronted with potentially informative stimuli from a variety of sensory modalities. Although there is a large proximate literature demonstrating multisensory integration, no general framework explains why animals integrate. We developed and tested a quantitative model that explains why multisensory integration is not always adaptive and explains why unimodal decision-making might be favored over multisensory integration. We present our model in terms of a prey that must determine the presence or absence of a predator. A greater chance of encountering a predator, a greater benefit of correctly responding to a predator, a lower benefit of correctly foraging, or a greater uncertainty of the second stimulus favors integration. Uncertainty of the first stimulus may either increase or decrease the favorability of integration. In three field studies, we demonstrate how our model can be empirically tested. We evaluated the model with field studies of yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventer) by presenting marmots with an olfactory-acoustic predator stimulus at a feed station. We found some support for the model's prediction that integration is favored when the second stimulus is less noisy. We hope additional predictions of the model will guide future empirical work that seeks to understand the extent to which multimodal integration might be situation dependent. We suggest that the model is generalizable beyond antipredator contexts and can be applied within or between individuals, populations, or species.
Multisensory integration is often studied from a very proximate view that simply describes the process of integration. We developed a model, the first of its kind, to investigate the situations under which multisensory integration is adaptive. We empirically evaluated the model by investigating the conditions under which yellow-bellied marmots integrated predatory scents and sounds. We found that integration can depend on an animal's situation at a given point in time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E Munoz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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24
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de Solan T, Aubier TG. The Evolutionary Importance of Cues in Protective Mimicry. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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25
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Halfwerk W, Varkevisser J, Simon R, Mendoza E, Scharff C, Riebel K. Toward Testing for Multimodal Perception of Mating Signals. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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26
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Multiple modalities in insect warning displays have additive effects against wild avian predators. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2643-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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