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Ding YE, Li Z. Termites can learn. Behav Processes 2024; 217:105012. [PMID: 38493970 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2024.105012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
It is generally believed that termites can't learn and are not "intelligent". This study aimed to test whether termites could have any form of memory. A Y-shaped test device with one release chamber and two identical test chambers was designed and constructed by 3D printing. A colony of damp wood termites was harvested from the wild. Worker termites were randomly selected for experiment. Repellent odors that could mimic the alarm pheromone for termites were first identified. Among all substances tested, a tea tree oil and lemon juice were found to contain repellent odors for the tested termites, as they significantly reduced the time that termites spent in the chamber treated with these substances. As control, a trail pheromone was found to be attractive. Subsequently, a second cohort of termites were operant conditioned by punishment using both tea tree oil and lemon juice, and then tested for their ability to remember the path that could lead to the repellant odors. The test device was thoroughly cleaned between trials. It was found that conditioned termites displayed a reduced tendency to choose the path that led to expectant punishment as compared with naïve termites. Thus, it is concluded that damp wood termites are capable of learning and forming "fear memory", indicative of "intelligence" in termites. This result challenges established presumption about termites' intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Evan Ding
- Boston Latin School, 78 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
| | - Zhenghui Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, PR China
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Thakur H, Agarwal S, Hradecký J, Sharma G, Li HF, Yang SE, Sehadová H, Chandel RS, Hyliš M, Mathur V, Šobotník J, Sillam-Dussès D. The Trail-Following Communication in Stylotermes faveolus and S. halumicus (Blattodea, Isoptera, Stylotermitidae). J Chem Ecol 2023; 49:642-651. [PMID: 37566284 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-023-01447-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Stylotermitidae appear peculiar among all termites, feeding in trunks of living trees in South Asia only. The difficulty to collect them limits the ability to study them, and they thus still belong to critically unknown groups in respect to their biology. We used a combination of microscopic observations, chemical analysis and behavioural tests, to determine the source and chemical nature of the trail-following pheromone of Stylotermes faveolus from India and S. halumicus from Taiwan. The sternal gland located at the 5th abdominal segment was the exclusive source of the trail-following pheromone in both S. faveolus and S. halumicus, and it is made up of class I, II and III secretory cells. Using gas chromatography coupled mass spectrometry, (3Z)-dodec-3-en-1-ol (DOE) was identified as the trail-following pheromone which elicits strong behavioural responses in workers at a threshold around 10- 4 ng/cm and 0.1 ng/gland. Our results confirm the switch from complex aldehyde trail-following pheromones occurring in the basal groups to simpler linear alcohols in the ancestor of Kalotermitidae and Neoisoptera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himanshu Thakur
- Department of Entomology, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Surbhi Agarwal
- Animal-Plant Interactions Lab, Department of Zoology, Sri Venkateswara College, Benito Juarez Marg, Dhaula Kuan, 110021, New Delhi, India
| | - Jaromír Hradecký
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Garima Sharma
- Animal-Plant Interactions Lab, Department of Zoology, Sri Venkateswara College, Benito Juarez Marg, Dhaula Kuan, 110021, New Delhi, India
| | - Hou-Feng Li
- Department of Entomology, National Chung Hsing University, 145 Xingda Rd, 402202, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shang-En Yang
- Department of Entomology, National Chung Hsing University, 145 Xingda Rd, 402202, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hana Sehadová
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Ravinder S Chandel
- Department of Entomology, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Mirek Hyliš
- Faculty of Sciences, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vartika Mathur
- Animal-Plant Interactions Lab, Department of Zoology, Sri Venkateswara College, Benito Juarez Marg, Dhaula Kuan, 110021, New Delhi, India
| | - Jan Šobotník
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
- Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - David Sillam-Dussès
- Laboratory of Experimental and Comparative Ethology, LEEC, UR 4443, University Sorbonne Paris Nord, Villetaneuse, France
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Chen J, Setia G, Lin LH, Sun Q, Husseneder C. Weight and protozoa number but not bacteria diversity are associated with successful pair formation of dealates in the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293813. [PMID: 37956140 PMCID: PMC10642788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
New colonies of Formosan subterranean termites are founded by monogamous pairs. During swarming season, alates (winged reproductives) leave their parental colony. After swarming, they drop to the ground, shed their wings, and male and female dealates find suitable nesting sites where they mate and become kings and queens of new colonies. The first generation of offspring is entirely dependent on the nutritional resources of the founder pair consisting of the fat and protein reserves of the dealates and their microbiota, which include the cellulose-digesting protozoa and diverse bacteria. Since termite kings and queens can live for decades, mate for life and colony success is linked to those initial resources, we hypothesized that gut microbiota of founders affect pair formation. To test this hypothesis, we collected pairs found in nest chambers and single male and female dealates from four swarm populations. The association of three factors (pairing status, sex of the dealates and population) with dealate weights, total protozoa, and protozoa Pseudotrichonympha grassii numbers in dealate hindguts was determined. In addition, Illumina 16S rRNA gene sequencing and the QIIME2 pipeline were used to determine the impact of those three factors on gut bacteria diversity of dealates. Here we report that pairing status was significantly affected by weight and total protozoa numbers, but not by P. grassii numbers and bacteria diversity. Weight and total protozoa numbers were higher in paired compared to single dealates. Males contained significantly higher P. grassii numbers and bacteria richness and marginally higher phylogenetic diversity despite having lower weights than females. In conclusion, this study showed that dealates with high body weight and protozoa numbers are more likely to pair and become colony founders, probably because of competitive advantage. The combined nutritional resources provided by body weight and protozoa symbionts of the parents are important for successful colony foundation and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Chen
- Department of Entomology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Los Angeles, United States of America
| | - Garima Setia
- Department of Entomology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Los Angeles, United States of America
| | - Li-Hsiang Lin
- Department of Experimental Statistics, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Los Angeles, United States of America
| | - Qian Sun
- Department of Entomology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Los Angeles, United States of America
| | - Claudia Husseneder
- Department of Entomology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Los Angeles, United States of America
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Johny J, Diallo S, Lukšan O, Shewale M, Kalinová B, Hanus R, Große-Wilde E. Conserved orthology in termite chemosensory gene families. Front Ecol Evol 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.1065947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Termites are eusocial insects known to use a variety of pheromones in tasks necessary for maintenance of their societies. As such, olfaction and pheromone communication in termites has been an object of intense study; trail-following pheromones (TFPs) and sex-pairing pheromones (SPPs), for example, have been identified in many termite species. In contrast, the molecular basis of olfactory detection is understudied in the group. Here, we present chemosensory genes of three species of termites belonging to three distinct lineages, Neotermes cubanus (Kalotermitidae), Prorhinotermes simplex (Rhinotermitidae), and Inquilinitermes inquilinus (Termitidae). Using antennal transcriptome screening of termite workers, we identified the chemosensory genes, which allowed us to perform phylogenetic analysis. We found a comparatively large repertoires of odorant receptors (ORs), gustatory receptors (GRs), ionotropic receptors (IRs), odorant binding proteins (OBPs), chemosensory proteins (CSPs), and sensory neuron membrane proteins (SNMPs). The evolutionary analysis of termite chemosensory genes revealed Isoptera-specific expansions with a 1:1 orthologous pattern, indicating the existence of conserved olfactory functions. Our findings on basal eusocial insects will further enhance our understanding of the molecular underpinnings of eusociality and the evolution of olfactory communication in termites.
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Mizumoto N, Bourguignon T, Bailey NW. Ancestral sex-role plasticity facilitates the evolution of same-sex sexual behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2212401119. [PMID: 36346843 PMCID: PMC9674213 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2212401119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent attempts to explain the evolutionary prevalence of same-sex sexual behavior (SSB) have focused on the role of indiscriminate mating. However, in many cases, SSB may be more complex than simple mistaken identity, instead involving mutual interactions and successful pairing between partners who can detect each other's sex. Behavioral plasticity is essential for the expression of SSB in such circumstances. To test behavioral plasticity's role in the evolution of SSB, we used termites to study how females and males modify their behavior in same-sex versus heterosexual pairs. Male termites follow females in paired "tandems" before mating, and movement patterns are sexually dimorphic. Previous studies observed that adaptive same-sex tandems also occur in both sexes. Here we found that stable same-sex tandems are achieved by behavioral plasticity when one partner adopts the other sex's movements, resulting in behavioral dimorphism. Simulations based on empirically obtained parameters indicated that this socially cued plasticity contributes to pair maintenance, because dimorphic movements improve reunion success upon accidental separation. A systematic literature survey and phylogenetic comparative analysis suggest that the ancestors of modern termites lack consistent sex roles during pairing, indicating that plasticity is inherited from the ancestor. Socioenvironmental induction of ancestral behavioral potential may be of widespread importance to the expression of SSB. Our findings challenge recent arguments for a prominent role of indiscriminate mating behavior in the evolutionary origin and maintenance of SSB across diverse taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuaki Mizumoto
- Evolutionary Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495 Japan
| | - Thomas Bourguignon
- Evolutionary Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna-son, Okinawa, 904-0495 Japan
| | - Nathan W. Bailey
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 9TH, United Kingdom
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Ibrahim DS, Vardy A. Largest coverage network in a robot swarm using reinforcement learning. ARTIFICIAL LIFE AND ROBOTICS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10015-022-00804-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Sansom TM, Oberst S, Richter A, Lai JCS, Saadatfar M, Nowotny M, Evans TA. Low radiodensity μCT scans to reveal detailed morphology of the termite leg and its subgenual organ. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2022; 70:101191. [PMID: 35816830 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2022.101191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Termites sense tiny substrate-borne vibrations through subgenual organs (SGOs) located within their legs' tibiae. Little is known about the SGOs' structure and physical properties. We applied high-resolution (voxel size 0.45 μm) micro-computed tomography (μCT) to Australian termites, Coptotermes lacteus and Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill) to test two staining techniques. We compared the effectiveness of a single stain of Lugol's iodine solution (LS) to LS followed by Phosphotungstic acid (PTA) solutions (1% and 2%). We then present results of a soldier of Nasutitermes exitiosus combining μCT with LS + 2%PTS stains and scanning electron microscopy to exemplify the visualisation of their SGOs. The termite's SGO due to its approximately oval shape was shown to have a maximum diameter of 60 μm and a minimum of 48 μm, covering 60 ± 4% of the leg's cross-section and 90.4 ± 5% of the residual haemolymph channel. Additionally, the leg and residual haemolymph channel cross-sectional area decreased around the SGO by 33% and 73%, respectively. We hypothesise that this change in cross-sectional area amplifies the vibrations for the SGO. Since SGOs are directly connected to the cuticle, their mechanical properties and the geometric details identified here may enable new approaches to determine how termites sense micro-vibrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travers M Sansom
- University of Technology Sydney, Centre for Audio, Acoustics and Vibration, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia.
| | - Sebastian Oberst
- University of Technology Sydney, Centre for Audio, Acoustics and Vibration, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia; School of Engineering and IT, University of New South Wales Canberra, Northcott Dr, Campbell ACT, 2612, Australia.
| | - Adrian Richter
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany
| | - Joseph C S Lai
- School of Engineering and IT, University of New South Wales Canberra, Northcott Dr, Campbell ACT, 2612, Australia
| | - Mohammad Saadatfar
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, 2006, Sydney, Australia
| | - Manuela Nowotny
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany
| | - Theodore A Evans
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
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Understanding of superorganisms: collective behavior, differentiation and social organization. ARTIFICIAL LIFE AND ROBOTICS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10015-022-00754-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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