Construction of a prognostic model related to copper dependence in breast cancer by single-cell sequencing analysis

Revolutionizing breast cancer treatment: Harnessing the related mechanisms and drugs for regulated cell death (Review)

Breast cancer arises from the malignant transformation of mammary epithelial cells under the influence of various carcinogenic factors, leading to a gradual increase in its prevalence. This disease has become the leading cause of mortality among female malignancies, posing a significant threat to the health of women. The timely identification of breast cancer remains challenging, often resulting in diagnosis at the advanced stages of the disease. Conventional therapeutic approaches, such as surgical excision, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, exhibit limited efficacy in controlling the progression and metastasis of the disease. Regulated cell death (RCD), a process essential for physiological tissue cell renewal, occurs within the body independently of external influences. In the context of cancer, research on RCD primarily focuses on cuproptosis, ferroptosis and pyroptosis. Mounting evidence suggests a marked association between these specific forms of RCD, and the onset and progression of breast cancer. For example, a cuproptosis vector can effectively bind copper ions to induce cuproptosis in breast cancer cells, thereby hindering their proliferation. Additionally, the expression of ferroptosis‑related genes can enhance the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to chemotherapy. Likewise, pyroptosis‑related proteins not only participate in pyroptosis, but also regulate the tumor microenvironment, ultimately leading to the death of breast cancer cells. The present review discusses the unique regulatory mechanisms of cuproptosis, ferroptosis and pyroptosis in breast cancer, and the mechanisms through which they are affected by conventional cancer drugs. Furthermore, it provides a comprehensive overview of the significance of these forms of RCD in modulating the efficacy of chemotherapy and highlights their shared characteristics. This knowledge may provide novel avenues for both clinical interventions and fundamental research in the context of breast cancer.

Cuproptosis: mechanisms and links with cancers

Cuproptosis was a copper-dependent and unique kind of cell death that was separate from existing other forms of cell death. The last decade has witnessed a considerable increase in investigations of programmed cell death, and whether copper induced cell death was an independent form of cell death has long been argued until mechanism of cuproptosis has been revealed. After that, increasing number of researchers attempted to identify the relationship between cuproptosis and the process of cancer. Thus, in this review, we systematically detailed the systemic and cellular metabolic processes of copper and the copper-related tumor signaling pathways. Moreover, we not only focus on the discovery process of cuproptosis and its mechanism, but also outline the association between cuproptosis and cancers. Finally, we further highlight the possible therapeutic direction of employing copper ion ionophores with cuproptosis-inducing functions in combination with small molecule drugs for targeted therapy to treat specific cancers.