Expression of Nutrient Transporters on NK Cells During Murine Cytomegalovirus Infection Is MyD88-Dependent

Feeder-cell-free system for ex vivo production of natural killer cells from cord blood hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells

Introduction

Natural Killer (NK) cells hold significant promise as therapeutic agents in immuno-oncology due to their ability to target and eliminate cancerous and infected cells without causing graft-versus-host disease or cytokine release syndrome. However, the limited availability of robust, scalable methods for generating clinical-grade NK cells remains a limiting factor to broader clinical application.

Methods

Here we report the development of a novel feeder-cell-free culture system optimized for producing NK cells from cord blood-derived CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). Our method eliminates the need for feeder cells while achieving high yields of NK cells that exhibit unique marker expression and cytotoxic functions. Cord blood CD34+ HSPCs were cultured in our established hDLL 4 culture system and generated large numbers of human T lymphoid progenitors (ProTcells) in 7 days. ProTcells were further cultured in a hDLL4-free, feeder-cell-free system for NK cell differentiation and supplemented with cytokines. Following a 7- or 14-day culture, this method produced highly pure NK cell populations (>90% CD3-CD56+).

Results

Flow and mass cytometric analysis confirmed the expression of activating receptors, transcription factors (ID2, T-bet) and cytotoxic molecules (perforin, granzyme A/B), all essential for ProT-NK cell functionality. These cells are in an immature state, indicated by the absence of maturation markers (CD16, KIRs). Functional assays demonstrated that these ProT-NK cells are capable of degranulation and cytokines production (TNFα) upon stimulation with K562 target cells and showed cytotoxicity against K562 cells superior to that of Peripheral Blood (PB)-NK. In NSG-Tg(hIL-15) mice, ProT-NK cells colonize bone marrow, the liver, and the spleen and persist and mature in bone marrow for at least 9 days post-injection. Compared to ProT-NK D21, ProT-NK D14 was superior in functional and homing potential. In vivo, an anti-tumor assay that uses a subcutaneous K562 model has demonstrated the anti-tumor potential of ProT-NK cells.

Discussion

Our ex vivo culture process supports scalable ProT-NK cell production in high yields, reducing dependency on feeder cells and mitigating contamination risks. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of generating large, functional NK cell populations from HSPCs isolated from readily available cord blood sources and offer an efficient alternative to PB-NK cell therapies.

The Role of Natural Killer Cells and Their Metabolism in HIV-1 Infection

Natural killer (NK) cells are multifaceted innate effector cells that critically influence antiviral immunity, and several protective NK cell features that modulate HIV-1 acquisition and viral control have been described. Chronic HIV-1 infection leads to NK cell impairment that has been associated with metabolic dysregulations. Therapeutic approaches targeting cellular immune metabolism represent potential novel interventions to reverse defective NK cell function in people living with HIV.

NK cell profiling in West Nile virus encephalitis reveals potential metabolic basis for functional inhibition

Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes important for viral defense. West Nile virus (WNV) infection of the central nervous system (CNS) causes marked recruitment of bone marrow (BM)-derived monocytes, T cells and NK cells, resulting in severe neuroinflammation and brain damage. Despite substantial numbers of NK cells in the CNS, their function and phenotype remain largely unexplored. Here, we demonstrate that NK cells mature from the BM to the brain, upregulate inhibitory receptors and show reduced cytokine production and degranulation, likely due to the increased expression of the inhibitory NK cell molecule, MHC-I. Intriguingly, this correlated with a reduction in metabolism associated with cytotoxicity in brain-infiltrating NK cells. Importantly, the degranulation and killing capability were restored in NK cells isolated from WNV-infected tissue, suggesting that WNV-induced NK cell inhibition occurs in the CNS. Overall, this work identifies a potential link between MHC-I inhibition of NK cells and metabolic reduction of their cytotoxicity during infection.

The TNFα/TNFR2 axis mediates natural killer cell proliferation by promoting aerobic glycolysis

Natural killer (NK) cells are predominant innate lymphocytes that initiate the early immune response during infection. NK cells undergo a metabolic switch to fuel augmented proliferation and activation following infection. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) is a well-known inflammatory cytokine that enhances NK cell function; however, the mechanism underlying NK cell proliferation in response to TNFα is not well established. Here, we demonstrated that upon infection/inflammation, NK cells upregulate the expression of TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2), which is associated with increased proliferation, metabolic activity, and effector function. Notably, IL-18 can induce TNFR2 expression in NK cells, augmenting their sensitivity toward TNFα. Mechanistically, TNFα-TNFR2 signaling upregulates the expression of CD25 (IL-2Rα) and nutrient transporters in NK cells, leading to a metabolic switch toward aerobic glycolysis. Transcriptomic analysis revealed significantly reduced expression levels of genes involved in cellular metabolism and proliferation in NK cells from TNFR2 KO mice. Accordingly, our data affirmed that genetic ablation of TNFR2 curtails CD25 upregulation and TNFα-induced glycolysis, leading to impaired NK cell proliferation and antiviral function during MCMV infection in vivo. Collectively, our results delineate the crucial role of the TNFα-TNFR2 axis in NK cell proliferation, glycolysis, and effector function.

Metabolism of NK cells during viral infections

Cellular metabolism is essential for the correct function of immune system cells, including Natural Killer cells (NK). These cells depend on energy to carry out their effector functions, especially in the early stages of viral infection. NK cells participate in the innate immune response against viruses and tumors. Their main functions are cytotoxicity and cytokine production. Metabolic changes can impact intracellular signals, molecule production, secretion, and cell activation which is essential as the first line of immune defense. Metabolic variations in different immune cells in response to a tumor or pathogen infection have been described; however, little is known about NK cell metabolism in the context of viral infection. This review summarizes the activation-specific metabolic changes in NK cells, the immunometabolism of NK cells during early, late, and chronic antiviral responses, and the metabolic alterations in NK cells in SARS-CoV2 infection. The modulation points of these metabolic routes are also discussed to explore potential new immunotherapies against viral infections.

Interleukin-33: Metabolic checkpoints, metabolic processes, and epigenetic regulation in immune cells

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a pleiotropic cytokine linked to various immune cells in the innate and adaptive immune systems. Recent studies of the effects of IL-33 on immune cells are beginning to reveal its regulatory mechanisms at the levels of cellular metabolism and epigenetic modifications. In response to IL-33 stimulation, these programs are intertwined with transcriptional programs, ultimately determining the fate of immune cells. Understanding these specific molecular events will help to explain the complex role of IL-33 in immune cells, thereby guiding the development of new strategies for immune intervention. Here, we highlight recent findings that reveal how IL-33, acting as an intracellular nuclear factor or an extracellular cytokine, alters metabolic checkpoints and cellular metabolism, which coordinately contribute to cell growth and function. We also discuss recent studies supporting the role of IL-33 in epigenetic alterations and speculate about the mechanisms underlying this relationship.

Solute carrier transporters: emerging central players in tumour immunotherapy

Solute carrier transporters (SLCs) mediate nutrient and metabolite cellular homeostasis. Immune cells depend on SLCs to induce rapid and robust metabolic reprogramming, thereby controlling diverse immunological responses. Recent studies hint toward an important role of SLCs in immunity. Here, we review the emerging roles of SLCs in immunotherapy via modifying the metabolism and effector functions of immune cells. We focus on the roles of three major nutrient (glucose, amino acid, and lipid)-related transporters in immunity of representative cells [T cells, dendritic cells (DCs), natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages) in innate and adaptive immunity. Other SLCs, such as ion transporters are also briefly discussed. Finally, we propose some potential strategies for targeting SLCs to augment tumour immunotherapy.