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Zhai Y, Li M, Gui Z, Wang Y, Hu T, Liu Y, Xu F. Whole Brain Mapping of Neurons Innervating Extraorbital Lacrimal Glands in Mice and Rats of Both Genders. Front Neural Circuits 2021; 15:768125. [PMID: 34776876 PMCID: PMC8585839 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2021.768125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The extraorbital lacrimal glands (ELGs) secret tears to maintain a homeostatic environment for ocular surfaces, and pheromones to mediate social interactions. Although its distinct gender-related differences in mice and rats have been identified, its comprehensive histology together with whole-brain neuronal network remain largely unknown. The primary objective of the present study was to investigate whether sex-specific differences take place in histological and physiological perspectives. Morphological and histological data were obtained via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining in mice and rats of both genders. The innervating network was visualized by a pseudorabies virus (PRV) mediated retrograde trans-multi-synaptic tracing system for adult C57BL6/J mice of both genders. In terms of ELGs' anatomy, mice and rats across genders both have 7 main lobes, with one exception observed in female rats which have only 5 lobes. Both female rats and mice generally have relatively smaller shape size, absolute weight, and cell size than males. Our viral tracing revealed a similar trend of innervating patterns antero-posteriorly, but significant gender differences were also observed in the hypothalamus (HY), olfactory areas (OLF), and striatum (STR). Brain regions including piriform area (Pir), post-piriform transition area (TR), central amygdalar nucleus (CEA), medial amygdalar nucleus (MEA), lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), parasubthalamic nucleus (PSTN), pontin reticular nucleus (caudal part) (PRNc), and parabrachial nucleus, (PB) were commonly labeled. In addition, chemical isotope labeling-assisted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (CIL-LC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR spectroscopy) were performed to reveal the fatty acids and metabolism of the ELGs, reflecting the relationship between pheromone secretion and brain network. Overall, our results revealed basic properties and the input neural networks for ELGs in both genders of mice, providing a structural basis to analyze the diverse functions of ELGs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,Centre for Brain Research, Department of Anatomy and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Min Li
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,Basic Medical Laboratory, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Central Nervous System Tumor and Intervention, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhu Gui
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Yeli Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ting Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Yue Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Fuqiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Viral Vectors for Biomedicine, The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China.,Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Viral Vector Technology in Cell and Gene Therapy Medicinal Products, Key Laboratory of Quality Control Technology for Virus-Based Therapeutics, Guangdong Provincial Medical Products Administration, Shenzhen, China.,Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Abstract
Tears contain pheromones that trigger specific behavioral responses. In the mouse, male tear fluid is involved in long and short-term effects such as the receptive behavior and pregnancy block in females and the aggression in males. In contrast, pup tears exert an inhibitory effect on male mating behavior, also promoting sexual rejection in females. In the rat, a male lacrimal protein acts as an intraspecific and heterospecific signal enhancing sexual behavior in females and evoking avoidance behavior in mouse. However, behavioral effects of female tears on male behavior have yet to be described. Here, we report that female lacrimal fluid of different mouse strains contains a relatively small and involatile factor that abolishes inter-male aggression switching it into a copulatory behavior. The production of this molecule by the lacrimal glands is not affected by the estrous cycle but it is sensitive to ovariectomy, thus suggesting a control mediated by hormones. Moreover, this lacrimal anti-aggression pheromone modulates the activity of the lateral habenula, a brain area responsible for the valence of the aggressive interactions.
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Chronic dry eye induced corneal hypersensitivity, neuroinflammatory responses, and synaptic plasticity in the mouse trigeminal brainstem. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:268. [PMID: 31847868 PMCID: PMC6918709 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1656-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dry eye disease (DED) is a multifactorial disease associated with ocular surface inflammation, pain, and nerve abnormalities. We studied the peripheral and central neuroinflammatory responses that occur during persistent DED using molecular, cellular, behavioral, and electrophysiological approaches. Methods A mouse model of DED was obtained by unilateral excision of the extraorbital lachrymal gland (ELG) and Harderian gland (HG) of adult female C57BL/6 mice. In vivo tests were conducted at 7, 14, and 21 days (d) after surgery. Tear production was measured by a phenol red test and corneal alterations and inflammation were assessed by fluorescein staining and in vivo confocal microscopy. Corneal nerve morphology was evaluated by nerve staining. Mechanical corneal sensitivity was monitored using von Frey filaments. Multi-unit extracellular recording of ciliary nerve fiber activity was used to monitor spontaneous corneal nerve activity. RT-qPCR and immunostaining were used to determine RNA and protein levels at d21. Results We observed a marked reduction of tear production and the development of corneal inflammation at d7, d14, and d21 post-surgery in DED animals. Chronic DE induced a reduction of intraepithelial corneal nerve terminals. Behavioral and electrophysiological studies showed that the DED animals developed time-dependent mechanical corneal hypersensitivity accompanied by increased spontaneous ciliary nerve fiber electrical activity. Consistent with these findings, DED mice exhibited central presynaptic plasticity, demonstrated by a higher Piccolo immunoreactivity in the ipsilateral trigeminal brainstem sensory complex (TBSC). At d21 post-surgery, mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory (IL-6 and IL-1β), astrocyte (GFAP), and oxidative (iNOS2 and NOX4) markers increased significantly in the ipsilateral trigeminal ganglion (TG). This correlated with an increase in Iba1, GFAP, and ATF3 immunostaining in the ipsilateral TG of DED animals. Furthermore, pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNFα, IL-1β, and CCL2), iNOS2, neuronal (ATF3 and FOS), and microglial (CD68 and Itgam) markers were also upregulated in the TBSC of DED animals at d21, along with increased immunoreactivity against GFAP and Iba1. Conclusions Overall, these data highlight peripheral sensitization and neuroinflammatory responses that participate in the development and maintenance of dry eye-related pain. This model may be useful to identify new analgesic molecules to alleviate ocular pain.
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Li F, Yang W, Jiang H, Guo C, Huang AJW, Hu H, Liu Q. TRPV1 activity and substance P release are required for corneal cold nociception. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5678. [PMID: 31831729 PMCID: PMC6908618 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13536-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As a protective mechanism, the cornea is sensitive to noxious stimuli. Here, we show that in mice, a high proportion of corneal TRPM8+ cold-sensing fibers express the heat-sensitive TRPV1 channel. Despite its insensitivity to cold, TRPV1 enhances membrane potential changes and electrical firing of TRPM8+ neurons in response to cold stimulation. This elevated neuronal excitability leads to augmented ocular cold nociception in mice. In a model of dry eye disease, the expression of TRPV1 in TRPM8+ cold-sensing fibers is increased, and results in severe cold allodynia. Overexpression of TRPV1 in TRPM8+ sensory neurons leads to cold allodynia in both corneal and non-corneal tissues without affecting their thermal sensitivity. TRPV1-dependent neuronal sensitization facilitates the release of the neuropeptide substance P from TRPM8+ cold-sensing neurons to signal nociception in response to cold. Our study identifies a mechanism underlying corneal cold nociception and suggests a potential target for the treatment of ocular pain. The eye shows protective responses to noxious stimuli including cold. Here, the authors show that TRPV1, found co-expressed on TRPM8 + fibres in the cornea, is necessary for cold nociception in the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengxian Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for the Study of Itch and Sensory Disorders, Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangdong, China
| | - Weishan Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for the Study of Itch and Sensory Disorders, Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Haowu Jiang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for the Study of Itch and Sensory Disorders, Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Changxiong Guo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for the Study of Itch and Sensory Disorders, Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Andrew J W Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Hongzhen Hu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for the Study of Itch and Sensory Disorders, Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Qin Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for the Study of Itch and Sensory Disorders, Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA. .,Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Holy TE. The Accessory Olfactory System: Innately Specialized or Microcosm of Mammalian Circuitry? Annu Rev Neurosci 2018; 41:501-525. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-061916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, the accessory olfactory system is a distinct circuit that has received attention for its role in detecting and responding to pheromones. While the neuroscientific investigation of this system is comparatively new, recent advances and its compact size have made it an attractive model for developing an end-to-end understanding of such questions as regulation of essential behaviors, plasticity, and individual recognition. Recent discoveries have indicated a need to reevaluate our conception of this system, suggesting that ( a) physical principles—rather than biological necessity—play an underappreciated role in its raison d'être and that ( b) the anatomy of downstream projections is not dominated by unique specializations but instead consists of an abbreviated cortical/basal ganglia motif reminiscent of other sensorimotor systems. These observations suggest that the accessory olfactory system distinguishes itself primarily by the physicochemical properties of its ligands, but its architecture is otherwise a microcosm of mammalian neurocircuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Holy
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, USA
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Arakawa H. Analysis of Social Process in Two Inbred Strains of Male Mice: A Predominance of Contact-Based Investigation in BALB/c Mice. Neuroscience 2017; 369:124-138. [PMID: 29138108 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.10.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Developing mouse models for social communication deficits requires a better understanding of the nature of social investigatory processes between mice. Mice use different investigatory strategies based on a possibility of contacts with social sources. A detailed investigation of contact distance revealed strain differences in behavioral strategy between two male inbred C57BL/6 (B6) and BALB/c (BALB) mouse strains. When direct physical contact with stimulus mice was restricted, BALB mice displayed lower social approaches than B6 mice, accompanied by heightened innate anxiety in an unfamiliar environment. However, both BALB and B6 mice expressed distinct object and social recognition in the habituation/dishabituation paradigm. When allowed direct contact with stimulus mice, both B6 and BALB mice showed approach and discrimination of strain differences in the stimulus mice. Furthermore, BALB mice discriminated individuals of the same strain among cagemates and showed a discrete aversion to the anogenital but not facial region of the stranger mice. This anogenital aversion disappeared when the stranger mice received a buspirone injection that reduced anxiety or when familiar cagemates were exposed. These strain differences in investigatory strategies illustrate that B6 mice are able to respond to and process social cues in a vicinity, which does not require physical contact with the source, while BALB mice predominantly process social cues by direct contact with the source. Although BALB mice exhibit marked anxiety and defensive responses to unfamiliarity, there is no evidence of any defect in sociability in BALB mice as a possible autism model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Arakawa
- Rodent Behavioral Core, Department of Research Administration, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, United States.
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Abstract
Background Physical cooling of the eye surface relieves ocular discomfort, but translating this event to drug treatment of dry eye discomfort not been studied. Here, we synthesized a water-soluble TRPM8 receptor agonist called cryosim-3 (C3, 1-diisopropylphosphorylnonane) which selectively activates TRPM8 (linked to cooling) but not TRPV1 or TRPA1 (linked to nociception) and tested C3 in subjects with mild forms of dry eye disease. Methods A set of 1-dialkylphosphoryalkanes were tested for activation of TRPM8, TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors in transfected cells. The bioactivity profiles were compared by perioral, topical, and intravenous delivery to anesthetized rats. The selected lead candidate C3 or vehicle (water) was applied with a cotton gauze pad to upper eyelids of patients with dry eye disease (n = 30). Cooling sensation, tear film break-up time (TBUT), basal tear secretion, and corneal staining were evaluated. C3 was then applied four times daily for 2 weeks to patients using a pre-loaded single unit applicator containing 2 mg/mL of C3 in water (n = 20) or water only. TBUT, basal tear secretion, and corneal staining, and three questionnaires surveys of ocular discomfort (VAS scale, OSDI, and CVS symptoms) were analyzed before and at 1 and 2 weeks thereafter. Results C3 was a selective and potent TRPM8 agonist without TRPV1 or TRPA1 activity. In test animals, the absence of shaking behavior after C3 perioral administration made it the first choice for further study. C3 increased tear secretion in an animal model of dry eye disease and did not irritate when wiped on eyes of volunteers. C3 singly applied (2 mg/ml) produced significant cooling in <5 min, an effecting lasting 46 min with an increase in tear secretion for 60 min. C3 applied for 2 weeks also significantly increased basal tear secretion with questionnaire surveys of ocular discomfort indices clearly showing improvement of symptoms at 1 and 2 weeks. No complaints of irritation or pain were reported by any subject. Conclusions C3 is a promising candidate for study of TRPM8 function on the eye surface and for relief of dry eye discomfort. Trial registration ISRCTN24802609 and ISRCTN13359367. Registered 23 March 2015 and 2 September 2015. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12886-017-0495-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Araujo ASL, de Jesus Simões M, Verna C, Simões RS, Júnior JMS, Baracat EC, Gomes RCT. Influence of hyperprolactinemia on collagen fibers in the lacrimal gland of female mice. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2015; 70:632-7. [PMID: 26375566 PMCID: PMC4557571 DOI: 10.6061/clinics/2015(09)07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To quantify the collagen fibers in the lacrimal gland of female mice with hyperprolactinemia. METHODS Forty adult female mice were randomly divided into two groups with 20 animals each: nonpregnant control (CTR1, control group, 0.2 mL of saline solution) and nonpregnant experimental (HPRL1, experimental group, 200 µg/day metoclopramide). Treatments lasted for 50 consecutive days. On day 50, 10 females from each group (control and experimental) were euthanized in the proestrus phase; then, the blood was collected and the lacrimal glands were removed. Thereafter, the remaining females were placed with the mates and continued to receive treatment with saline solution or metoclopramide. On the 6th post-coital day, 10 pregnant females from the control group (CTR2) and 10 pregnant females from the experimental group (HPRL2) were euthanized, after which blood was collected and the lacrimal glands removed. The lacrimal glands were processed for morphological analyses and collagen quantification, and prolactin and sex steroid levels were measured in the blood samples. Data were statistically analyzed using an unpaired Student t test (p<0.05). RESULTS Morphological analysis revealed greater structural tissue disorganization of the lacrimal glands in the metoclopramide-treated groups. The total collagen content was significantly higher in the HPRL1 group than in the CTR1 group (p<0.05), whereas the difference between the CTR2 and HPRL2 groups was not significant. CONCLUSION Our data suggest an impairment in the functioning of the lacrimal gland as a consequence of increased prolactin levels and decreased serum levels of estrogen and progesterone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariadne Stavare Leal Araujo
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Morfologia e Genética
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Oftalmologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
| | - Manuel de Jesus Simões
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Ginecologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Morfologia e Genética
| | - Carina Verna
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Ginecologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Oftalmologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
| | | | - José Maria Soares Júnior
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Obstetricia e Ginecologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
| | - Edmund Chada Baracat
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Obstetricia e Ginecologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
| | - Regina Célia Teixeira Gomes
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Ginecologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Morfologia e Genética
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Obstetricia e Ginecologia, São Paulo/, SP, Brazil
- Corresponding author: E-mail:
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Salazar I. The nasal cavity and its olfactory sensory territories. Front Neuroanat 2015; 9:31. [PMID: 25852492 PMCID: PMC4364257 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2015.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Salazar
- Unit of Anatomy and Embryology, Department of Anatomy and Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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