Immunohistochemical Characterisation of the Whale Retina

Microglial regulation of the retinal vasculature in health and during the pathology associated with diabetes

The high metabolic demand of retinal neurons requires a precisely regulated vascular system that can deliver rapid changes in blood flow in response to neural need. In the retina, this is achieved via the action of a coordinated group of cells that form the neurovascular unit. While cells such as pericytes, Müller cells, and astrocytes have long been linked to neurovascular coupling, more recently the resident microglial population have also been implicated. In the healthy retina, microglia make extensive contact with blood vessels, as well as neuronal synapses, and are important in vascular patterning during development. Work in the brain and retina has recently indicated that microglia can directly regulate the local vasculature. In the retina, the fractalkine-Cx3cr1 signalling axis has been shown to induce local capillary constriction within the superficial vascular plexus via a mechanism involving components of the renin-angiotensin system. Furthermore, aberrant microglial induced vasoconstriction may be at the centre of early vascular reactivity changes observed in those with diabetes. This review summarizes the recent emerging evidence that microglia play multiple roles in retinal homeostasis especially in regulating the vasculature. We highlight what is known about the role of microglia under normal circumstances, and then build on this to discuss how microglia contribute to early vascular compromise during diabetes. Further understanding of the mechanisms of microglial-vascular regulation may allow alternate treatment strategies to be devised to reduce vascular pathology in diseases such as diabetic retinopathy.

Neuroanatomy of the Cetacean Sensory Systems

Cetaceans have undergone profound sensory adaptations in response to their aquatic environment during evolution. These adaptations are characterised by anatomo-functional changes in the classically defined sensory systems, shaping their neuroanatomy accordingly. This review offers a concise and up-to-date overview of our current understanding of the neuroanatomy associated with cetacean sensory systems. It encompasses a wide spectrum, ranging from the peripheral sensory cells responsible for detecting environmental cues, to the intricate structures within the central nervous system that process and interpret sensory information. Despite considerable progress in this field, numerous knowledge gaps persist, impeding a comprehensive and integrated understanding of their sensory adaptations, and through them, of their sensory perspective. By synthesising recent advances in neuroanatomical research, this review aims to shed light on the intricate sensory alterations that differentiate cetaceans from other mammals and allow them to thrive in the marine environment. Furthermore, it highlights pertinent knowledge gaps and invites future investigations to deepen our understanding of the complex processes in cetacean sensory ecology and anatomy, physiology and pathology in the scope of conservation biology.

Interspecies Retinal Diversity and Optic Nerve Anatomy in Odontocetes

Throughout evolution, odontocete vision has had to readapt to the aquatic environment, which has had far-reaching effects on ocular anatomy and neurology. The most prominent features include the iris with an operculum, a well-developed choroid, the presence of giant ganglion cells in the retina, and the hemispherical shape of the thick eyecup. In the present study, the optic nerve and the retina were comparatively studied in Odontoceti (Cuvier's beaked whale, common bottlenose dolphin, false killer whale, long-finned pilot whale, Risso's dolphin, striped dolphin), the semi-aquatic common hippopotamus, and the fully terrestrial bovine. Cross-sections of the tissue were treated with histological and immunohistochemical techniques. Substantial differences were seen between the odontocetes and the reference species as well as within the cetaceans. The morphological structure of the optic nerve mainly appeared species specific, while the density of retinal ganglion cells was significantly higher in the terrestrial bovine than in the cetaceans. However, some typical characteristics of the cetacean retina were absent: the giant ganglion cells and the high retinal thickness. Immunohistochemical research showed varying degrees of neurofilament 200 expression in the retinal ganglion cells, while calretinin was only expressed in those of the common bottlenose dolphin and bovine.

Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells in glaucoma

Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases afflicting more than 70 million people worldwide. It is characterized by damage to retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) that ultimately leads to the death of the cells and vision loss. The diversity of RGC types has been appreciated for decades, and studies, including ours, have shown that RGCs degenerate and die in a type-specific manner in rodent models of glaucoma. The type-specific loss of RGCs results in differential damage to visual and non-visual functions. One type of RGC, the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGC), expressing the photopigment melanopsin, serves a broad array of non-visual responses to light. Since its discovery, six subtypes of ipRGC have been described, each contributing to various image-forming and non-image-forming functions such as circadian photoentrainment, the pupillary light reflex, the photic control of mood and sleep, and visual contrast sensitivity. We recently demonstrated a link between type-specific ipRGC survival and behavioral deficits in a mouse model of chronic ocular hypertension. This review focuses on the type-specific ipRGC degeneration and associated behavioral changes in animal models and glaucoma patients. A better understanding of how glaucomatous insult impacts the ipRGC-based circuits will have broad impacts on improving the treatment of glaucoma-associated non-visual disorders.

Characteristics of Whale Müller Glia in Primary and Immortalized Cultures

Müller cells are the principal glial cells in the retina and they assume many of the functions carried out by astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and ependymal cells in other regions of the central nervous system. Müller cells express growth factors, neurotransmitter transporters and antioxidant agents that could fulfill important roles in preventing excitotoxic damage to retinal neurons. Vertebrate Müller cells are well-defined cells, characterized by a common set of features throughout the phylum. Nevertheless, several major differences have been observed among the Müller cells in distinct vertebrates, such as neurogenesis, the capacity to reprogram fish Müller glia to neurons. Here, the Müller glia of the largest adult mammal in the world, the whale, have been analyzed, and given the difficulties in obtaining cetacean cells for study, these whale glia were analyzed both in primary cultures and as immortalized whale Müller cells. After isolating the retina from the eye of a beached sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), primary Müller cell cultures were established and once the cultures reached confluence, half of the cultures were immortalized with the simian virus 40 (SV40) large T-antigen commonly used to immortalize human cell lines. The primary cell cultures were grown until cells reached senescence. Expression of the principal molecular markers of Müller cells (GFAP, Vimentin and Glutamine synthetase) was studied in both primary and immortalized cells at each culture passage. Proliferation kinetics of the cells were analyzed by time-lapse microscopy: the time between divisions, the time that cells take to divide, and the proportion of dividing cells in the same field. The karyotypes of the primary and immortalized whale Müller cells were also characterized. Our results shown that W21M proliferate more rapidly and they have a stable karyotype. W21M cells display a heterogeneous cell morphology, less motility and a distinctive expression of some typical molecular markers of Müller cells, with an increase in dedifferentiation markers like α-SMA and β-III tubulin, while they preserve their GS expression depending on the culture passage. Here we also discuss the possible influence of the animal's age and size on these cells, and on their senescence.