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Reecher HM, Bearden DJ, Koop JI, Berl MM, Patrick KE, Ailion AS. The changing landscape of electrical stimulation language mapping with subdural electrodes and stereoelectroencephalography for pediatric epilepsy: A literature review and commentary. Epilepsia 2024. [PMID: 38787551 DOI: 10.1111/epi.18009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Electrical stimulation mapping (ESM) is used to locate the brain areas supporting language directly within the human cortex to minimize the risk of functional decline following epilepsy surgery. ESM is completed by utilizing subdural grid or depth electrodes (stereo-electroencephalography [sEEG]) in combination with behavioral evaluation of language. Despite technological advances, there is no standardized method of assessing language during pediatric ESM. To identify current clinical practices for pediatric ESM of language, we surveyed neuropsychologists in the Pediatric Epilepsy Research Consortium. Results indicated that sEEG is used for functional mapping at >80% of participating epilepsy surgery centers (n = 13/16) in the United States. However, >65% of sites did not report a standardized protocol to map language. Survey results indicated a clear need for practice recommendations regarding ESM of language. We then utilized PubMed/Medline and PsychInfo to identify 42 articles that reported on ESM of language, of which 18 met inclusion criteria, which included use of ESM/signal recording to localize language regions in children (<21 years) and a detailed account of the procedure and language measures used, and region-specific language localization outcomes. Articles were grouped based on the language domain assessed, language measures used, and the brain regions involved. Our review revealed the need for evidence-based clinical guidelines for pediatric language paradigms during ESM and a standardized language mapping protocol as well as standardized reporting of brain regions in research. Relevant limitations and future directions are discussed with a focus on considerations for pediatric language mapping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hope M Reecher
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Donald J Bearden
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Neuropsychology, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jennifer I Koop
- Department of Neurology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Neurology, Department of Neuropsychology, Children's Wisconsin, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Madison M Berl
- Department of Neuropsychology, Children's National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Kristina E Patrick
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Seattle Children's Hospital, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Alyssa S Ailion
- Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Amaral L, Donato R, Valério D, Caparelli-Dáquer E, Almeida J, Bergström F. Disentangling hand and tool processing: Distal effects of neuromodulation. Cortex 2022; 157:142-154. [PMID: 36283136 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Neural processing within a local brain region that responds to more than one object category (e.g., hands and tools) nonetheless have different functional connectivity patterns with other distal brain areas, which suggests that local processing can affect and/or be affected by processing in distal areas, in a category-specific way. Here we wanted to test whether administering either a hand- or tool-related training task in tandem with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to a region that responds both to hands and tools (posterior middle temporal gyrus; pMTG), modulated local and distal neural processing more for the trained than the untrained category in a subsequent fMRI task. After each combined tDCS/training session, participants viewed images of tools, hands, and animals, in an fMRI scanner. Using multivoxel pattern analysis, we found that tDCS stimulation to pMTG indeed improved the classification accuracy between tools vs. animals, but only when combined with a tool and not a hand training task. Surprisingly, tDCS stimulation to pMTG also improved classification accuracy between hands vs. animals when combined with a tool but not a hand training task. Our findings suggest that overlapping but functionally-specific networks may be engaged separately by using a category-specific training task together with tDCS - a strategy that can be applied more broadly to other cognitive domains using tDCS. By hypothesis, these effects on local processing are a direct result of within-domain connectivity constraints from domain-specific networks that are at play in the processing and organization of object representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lénia Amaral
- Proaction Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal; CINEICC, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal
| | - Rita Donato
- Proaction Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal; Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy; Human Inspired Technology Centre, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Daniela Valério
- Proaction Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal; CINEICC, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal
| | - Egas Caparelli-Dáquer
- Laboratory of Electrical Stimulation of the Nervous System (LabEEL), Rio de Janeiro State University, Brazil
| | - Jorge Almeida
- Proaction Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal; CINEICC, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal.
| | - Fredrik Bergström
- Proaction Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal; CINEICC, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Portugal; Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
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Veldema J, Gharabaghi A, Jansen P. Non-invasive brain stimulation in modulation of mental rotation ability: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:7493-7512. [PMID: 34651358 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Mental rotation, the ability to manipulate mental images, is an important function in human cognition. This systematic review and meta-analysis investigates the potential of non-invasive brain stimulation in modulation of this component of visuo-spatial perception. The PubMed database was reviewed prior to 31 September 2020 on randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) on the mental rotation ability in healthy persons. A total of 17 studies (including 485 subjects) matched our inclusion criteria. Within their scope, overall, 46 sham-controlled experiments were performed. Methodology and results of each experiment are presented in a meta-analysis. The data show a large variety of methods and effects. The influence of (1) stimulation-technique (tDCS, tACS, and rTMS), (2) stimulation protocol (anodal, cathodal, bilateral tDCS, tACS, high-frequency rTMS, low-frequency rTMS, paired pulse rTMS, and theta burst stimulation), (3) stimulation timing (preconditioning and simultaneous), (4) stimulation location (left, right hemisphere, frontal, and parietal area), and (5) stimulus type (bodily and non-bodily) is discussed. The data indicate a beneficial effect of anodal tDCS and of tACS and no effect of cathodal tDCS on the mental rotation ability. Bilateral tDCS protocols both improved and worsened the parameters assessed. The small effect sizes obtained in mostly rTMS experiments require cautious interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitka Veldema
- Institute for Neuromodulation and Neurotechnology, University Hospital and University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Alireza Gharabaghi
- Institute for Neuromodulation and Neurotechnology, University Hospital and University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Petra Jansen
- Faculty of Human Science, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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郭 娅, 焦 学, 姜 劲, 曹 勇, 楚 洪, 李 启. [Research on enhancement of mental rotation ability based on transcranial direct current stimulation]. SHENG WU YI XUE GONG CHENG XUE ZA ZHI = JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING = SHENGWU YIXUE GONGCHENGXUE ZAZHI 2021; 38:630-637. [PMID: 34459161 PMCID: PMC9927530 DOI: 10.7507/1001-5515.202011083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive low-current brain stimulation technique, which is mainly based on the different polarity of electrode stimulation to make the activation threshold of neurons different, thereby regulating the excitability of the cerebral cortex. In this paper, healthy subjects were randomly divided into three groups: anodal stimulation group, cathodal stimulation group and sham stimulation group, with 5 subjects in each group. Then, the performance data of the three groups of subjects were recorded before and after stimulation to test their mental rotation ability, and resting state and task state electroencephalogram (EEG) data were collected. Finally, through comparative analysis of the behavioral data and EEG data of the three groups of subjects, the effect of electrical stimulation of different polarities on the three-dimensional mental rotation ability was explored. The results of the study found that the correct response time/accuracy rate and the accuracy rate performance of the anodal stimulation group were higher than those of the cathodal stimulation and sham stimulation groups, and there was a significant difference ( P < 0.05). The alpha wave power analysis found that the mental rotation mainly activates the frontal lobe, central area, parietal lobe and occipital lobe. In the anodal stimulation group, the alpha wave power changed significantly in the frontal lobe and occipital lobe ( P < 0.05). The results of this paper show that anodal stimulation group can improve the mental rotation ability of the subjects to a certain extent. The results of this paper can provide important theoretical support for further research on the mechanism of tDCS on mental rotation ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- 娅美 郭
- 航天工程大学 研究生院(北京 101416)Department of Graduate School, Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, P.R.China
- 中国航天员科研训练中心 人因工程国防科技重点实验室(北京 100094)Key Laboratory of Human Factors Engineering, China Astronaut Research and Training Centre, Beijing 100094, P.R.China
| | - 学军 焦
- 航天工程大学 研究生院(北京 101416)Department of Graduate School, Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, P.R.China
| | - 劲 姜
- 航天工程大学 研究生院(北京 101416)Department of Graduate School, Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, P.R.China
| | - 勇 曹
- 航天工程大学 研究生院(北京 101416)Department of Graduate School, Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, P.R.China
| | - 洪祚 楚
- 航天工程大学 研究生院(北京 101416)Department of Graduate School, Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, P.R.China
| | - 启杰 李
- 航天工程大学 研究生院(北京 101416)Department of Graduate School, Space Engineering University, Beijing 101416, P.R.China
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Expert Tool Users Show Increased Differentiation between Visual Representations of Hands and Tools. J Neurosci 2021; 41:2980-2989. [PMID: 33563728 PMCID: PMC8018880 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2489-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The idea that when we use a tool we incorporate it into the neural representation of our body (embodiment) has been a major inspiration for philosophy, science, and engineering. While theoretically appealing, there is little direct evidence for tool embodiment at the neural level. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in male and female human subjects, we investigated whether expert tool users (London litter pickers: n = 7) represent their expert tool more like a hand (neural embodiment) or less like a hand (neural differentiation), as compared with a group of tool novices (n = 12). During fMRI scans, participants viewed first-person videos depicting grasps performed by either a hand, litter picker, or a non-expert grasping tool. Using representational similarity analysis (RSA), differences in the representational structure of hands and tools were measured within occipitotemporal cortex (OTC). Contrary to the neural embodiment theory, we find that the experts group represent their own tool less like a hand (not more) relative to novices. Using a case-study approach, we further replicated this effect, independently, in five of the seven individual expert litter pickers, as compared with the novices. An exploratory analysis in left parietal cortex, a region implicated in visuomotor representations of hands and tools, also indicated that experts do not visually represent their tool more similar to hands, compared with novices. Together, our findings suggest that extensive tool use leads to an increased neural differentiation between visual representations of hands and tools. This evidence provides an important alternative framework to the prominent tool embodiment theory.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT It is commonly thought that tool use leads to the assimilation of the tool into the neural representation of the body, a process referred to as embodiment. Here, we demonstrate that expert tool users (London litter pickers) neurally represent their own tool less like a hand (not more), compared with novices. Our findings advance our current understanding for how experience shapes functional organization in high-order visual cortex. Further, this evidence provides an alternative framework to the prominent tool embodiment theory, suggesting instead that experience with tools leads to more distinct, separable hand and tool representations.
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Herman AM, Palmer C, Azevedo RT, Tsakiris M. Neural divergence and convergence for attention to and detection of interoceptive and somatosensory stimuli. Cortex 2020; 135:186-206. [PMID: 33385747 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2020.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Body awareness is constructed by signals originating from within and outside the body. How do these apparently divergent signals converge? We developed a signal detection task to study the neural convergence and divergence of interoceptive and somatosensory signals. Participants focused on either cardiac or tactile events and reported their presence or absence. Beyond some evidence of divergence, we observed a robust overlap in the pattern of activation evoked across both conditions in frontal areas including the insular cortex, as well as parietal and occipital areas, and for both attention and detection of these signals. Psycho-physiological interaction analysis revealed that right insular cortex connectivity was modulated by the conscious detection of cardiac compared to somatosensory sensations, with greater connectivity to occipito-parietal regions when attending to cardiac signals. Our findings speak in favour of the inherent convergence of bodily-related signals and move beyond the apparent antagonism between exteroception and interoception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra M Herman
- Lab of Action and Body, Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK.
| | - Clare Palmer
- ABCD Coordinating Center, Center for Human Development (CHD), University of California, San Diego, USA
| | | | - Manos Tsakiris
- Lab of Action and Body, Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK; The Warburg Institute, School of Advanced Study, University of London, UK; Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
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7
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Conson M, Cecere R, Baiano C, De Bellis F, Forgione G, Zappullo I, Trojano L. Implicit Motor Imagery and the Lateral Occipitotemporal Cortex: Hints for Tailoring Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17165851. [PMID: 32806702 PMCID: PMC7459529 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17165851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background: Recent evidence has converged in showing that the lateral occipitotemporal cortex is over-recruited during implicit motor imagery in elderly and in patients with neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease. These data suggest that when automatically imaging movements, individuals exploit neural resources in the visual areas to compensate for the decline in activating motor representations. Thus, the occipitotemporal cortex could represent a cortical target of non-invasive brain stimulation combined with cognitive training to enhance motor imagery performance. Here, we aimed at shedding light on the role of the left and right lateral occipitotemporal cortex in implicit motor imagery. Methods: We applied online, high-frequency, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the left and right lateral occipitotemporal cortex while healthy right-handers judged the laterality of hand images. Results: With respect to the sham condition, left hemisphere stimulation specifically reduced accuracy in judging the laterality of right-hand images. Instead, the hallmark of motor simulation, i.e., the biomechanical effect, was never influenced by rTMS. Conclusions: The lateral occipitotemporal cortex seems to be involved in mental representation of the dominant hand, at least in right-handers, but not in reactivating sensorimotor information during simulation. These findings provide useful hints for developing combined brain stimulation and behavioural trainings to improve motor imagery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Conson
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (R.C.); (C.B.); (G.F.); (I.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-08-2327-5327
| | - Roberta Cecere
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (R.C.); (C.B.); (G.F.); (I.Z.)
| | - Chiara Baiano
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (R.C.); (C.B.); (G.F.); (I.Z.)
| | - Francesco De Bellis
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (F.D.B.); (L.T.)
| | - Gabriela Forgione
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (R.C.); (C.B.); (G.F.); (I.Z.)
| | - Isa Zappullo
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (R.C.); (C.B.); (G.F.); (I.Z.)
| | - Luigi Trojano
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (F.D.B.); (L.T.)
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Oshiyama C, Sutoh C, Miwa H, Okabayashi S, Hamada H, Matsuzawa D, Hirano Y, Takahashi T, Niwa SI, Honda M, Sakatsume K, Nishimura T, Shimizu E. Gender-specific associations of depression and anxiety symptoms with mental rotation. J Affect Disord 2018; 235:277-284. [PMID: 29660643 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Men score higher on mental rotation tasks compared to women and suffer from depression and anxiety at half the rate of women. The objective of this study was to confirm the gender-specific effects of depression and anxiety on mental rotation performance. METHODS We collected data in non-experimental conditions from 325 university students at three universities. Participants completed rating scales of depressive and anxiety symptoms, and then simultaneously performed a mental rotation task using tablet devices. RESULTS We observed no significant difference between men and women in the depressive and anxiety symptoms and task response time. Men had a significantly higher correct answer rate compared with women. The scores of depression and anxiety of all participants were positively correlated. Task response time correlated positively with intensity of depressive symptoms and anxiety in women, but not in men. Women with high depressive symptoms had significantly longer response times than did women with low depressive symptoms, while men had no differences due to depressive symptoms. LIMITATIONS We did not directly examine brain functions; therefore, the underlying neurobiological results are only based on previous knowledge and action data. CONCLUSIONS The pathology of depression and anxiety was reflected in the correct answer rate and response time in relation to the gender difference of brain function used in mental rotation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiaki Oshiyama
- United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University, Fukui University, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka Japan; Department of Cognitive Behavioral Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 269-0856, Japan; Research Center for Child Mental Development, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-0856, Japan; Department of Functional Brain Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), 4-1-1, Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.
| | - Chihiro Sutoh
- Department of Cognitive Behavioral Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 269-0856, Japan.
| | - Hiroyasu Miwa
- Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), AIST Waterfront, 2-3-26, Aomi, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Okabayashi
- Department of Fashion Sociology and Sciences, Bunka Gakuen University, 3-22-1, Yoyogi, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 151-8523, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Hamada
- Department of Cognitive Behavioral Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 269-0856, Japan
| | - Daisuke Matsuzawa
- Department of Cognitive Behavioral Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 269-0856, Japan; Research Center for Child Mental Development, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-0856, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Hirano
- United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University, Fukui University, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka Japan; Research Center for Child Mental Development, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-0856, Japan.
| | - Tetsuya Takahashi
- Health Administration Center, University of Fukui, 3-9-1, Bunkyou, Fukui 910-0017, Japan.
| | - Shin-Ichi Niwa
- Aizu Medical Center, Fukushima Medical University, 21-2, Tanizawa-Maeda, Kawahigashi, Aizuwakamatsu, Fukushima 969-3482, Japan.
| | - Manabu Honda
- Department of Functional Brain Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), 4-1-1, Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.
| | - Kazuyuki Sakatsume
- Faculty of Education and Integrated Arts and Sciences, Waseda University, 1-6-1, Nishi-Waseda, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-8050, Japan.
| | - Takuichi Nishimura
- Artificial Intelligence Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), AIST Waterfront, 2-4-7, Aomi, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan.
| | - Eiji Shimizu
- United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University, Fukui University, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka Japan; Department of Cognitive Behavioral Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 269-0856, Japan; Research Center for Child Mental Development, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-0856, Japan.
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