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DeLuna-Castruita A, Lizarraga-Cortes V, Flores A, Manjarrez E. ADHD Adults Show Lower Interindividual Similarity in Ex-Gaussian Reaction Time Vectors for Congruent Stimuli Compared to Control Peers. J Atten Disord 2024; 28:335-349. [PMID: 38084076 DOI: 10.1177/10870547231214966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Interindividual similarity refers to how similarly individuals respond when receiving the same stimulus or intervention. In this study, we aimed to examine interindividual similarity in adults with ADHD. METHOD We used the cosine similarity index of ex-Gaussian reaction time (RT) vectors of mu, sigma, and tau parameters during a Stroop task. RESULTS Our results demonstrate that the ADHD group exhibits a reduced interindividual similarity index in their ex-Gaussian RT vectors for congruent stimuli compared to the healthy control group. Importantly, we did not find significant differences in the interindividual similarity index to incongruent stimuli between both groups, thus suggesting that this reduced index was selective for congruent stimuli. CONCLUSION Our findings highlight that ADHD adults exhibit more significant interindividual differences in cognitive functioning when processing congruent stimuli than healthy controls. These results provide new insights into the selective mechanisms underlying ADHD and may contribute to developing new targeted interventions for this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amira Flores
- Benemerita Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, Mexico
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2
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Fisher JT, Hopp FR, Weber R. Cognitive and perceptual load have opposing effects on brain network efficiency and behavioral variability in ADHD. Netw Neurosci 2023; 7:1483-1496. [PMID: 38144687 PMCID: PMC10727773 DOI: 10.1162/netn_a_00336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder associated with suboptimal outcomes throughout the life-span. Extant work suggests that ADHD-related deficits in task performance may be magnified under high cognitive load and minimized under high perceptual load, but these effects have yet to be systematically examined, and the neural mechanisms that undergird these effects are as yet unknown. Herein, we report results from three experiments investigating how performance in ADHD is modulated by cognitive load and perceptual load during a naturalistic task. Results indicate that cognitive load and perceptual load influence task performance, reaction time variability (RTV), and brain network topology in an ADHD-specific fashion. Increasing cognitive load resulted in reduced performance, greater RTV, and reduced brain network efficiency in individuals with ADHD relative to those without. In contrast, increased perceptual load led to relatively greater performance, reduced RTV, and greater brain network efficiency in ADHD. These results provide converging evidence that brain network efficiency and intraindividual variability in ADHD are modulated by both cognitive and perceptual load during naturalistic task performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob T. Fisher
- Department of Communication, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Frederic R. Hopp
- Amsterdam School of Communication Research, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - René Weber
- Department of Communication, Media Neuroscience Lab, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- School of Communication and Media, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea
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3
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Kember J, Stepien L, Panda E, Tekok-Kilic A. Resting-state EEG dynamics help explain differences in response control in ADHD: Insight into electrophysiological mechanisms and sex differences. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0277382. [PMID: 37796795 PMCID: PMC10553225 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Reductions in response control (greater reaction time variability and commission error rate) are consistently observed in those diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Previous research suggests these reductions arise from a dysregulation of large-scale cortical networks. Here, we extended our understanding of this cortical-network/response-control pathway important to the neurobiology of ADHD. First, we assessed how dynamic changes in three resting-state EEG network properties thought to be relevant to ADHD (phase-synchronization, modularity, oscillatory power) related with response control during a simple perceptual decision-making task in 112 children/adolescents (aged 8-16) with and without ADHD. Second, we tested whether these associations differed in males and females who were matched in age, ADHD-status and ADHD- subtype. We found that changes in oscillatory power (as opposed to phase-synchrony and modularity) are most related with response control, and that this relationship is stronger in ADHD compared to controls. Specifically, a tendency to dwell in an electrophysiological state characterized by high alpha/beta power (8-12/13-30Hz) and low delta/theta power (1-3/4-7Hz) supported response control, particularly in those with ADHD. Time in this state might reflect an increased initiation of alpha-suppression mechanisms, recruited by those with ADHD to suppress processing unfavourable to response control. We also found marginally significant evidence that this relationship is stronger in males compared to females, suggesting a distinct etiology for response control in the female presentation of ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonah Kember
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Department of Child and Youth Studies, Brock University, St. Catharine’s, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lauren Stepien
- Department of Child and Youth Studies, Brock University, St. Catharine’s, Ontario, Canada
| | - Erin Panda
- Department of Child and Youth Studies, Brock University, St. Catharine’s, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ayda Tekok-Kilic
- Department of Child and Youth Studies, Brock University, St. Catharine’s, Ontario, Canada
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4
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Avisar A. Is the deficit in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder a concentration deficit? APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2023; 12:344-352. [PMID: 35998286 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2022.2114353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is comprised of two behavioral clusters of symptoms, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Numerous studies have attempted to address the underlying neuropsychological mechanism of ADHD. However, there is still no uniform mechanism that can fully explain both inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms. This review describes the research findings that have shifted the focus from cognitive selective attention to executive function deficits and notes that the prominence of the attention deficit remains unclear. As ADHD is not consistently explained by cognitive selective attention but rather with cognitive sustained attention/vigilance and executive function deficits, this review suggests that concentration deficit is likely the cause of inattention symptoms. Indeed, considering concentration deficit as the cause of inattention symptoms may better describe the underlying difficulties of maintaining and controlling attention in ADHD. In addition, as concentration, impulsivity, and hyperactivity may share a common cognitive deficit, this shift in focus may help in identifying a single mechanism for all ADHD symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alon Avisar
- Department of Psychology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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5
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Sergiou CS, Tatti E, Romanella SM, Santarnecchi E, Weidema AD, Rassin EG, Franken IH, van Dongen JD. The effect of HD-tDCS on brain oscillations and frontal synchronicity during resting-state EEG in violent offenders with a substance dependence. Int J Clin Health Psychol 2023; 23:100374. [PMID: 36875007 PMCID: PMC9982047 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Violence is a major problem in our society and therefore research into the neural underpinnings of aggression has grown exponentially. Although in the past decade the biological underpinnings of aggressive behavior have been examined, research on neural oscillations in violent offenders during resting-state electroencephalography (rsEEG) remains scarce. In this study we aimed to investigate the effect of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) on frontal theta, alpha and beta frequency power, asymmetrical frontal activity, and frontal synchronicity in violent offenders. Fifty male violent forensic patients diagnosed with a substance dependence were included in a double-blind sham-controlled randomized study. The patients received 20 minutes of HD-tDCS two times a day on five consecutive days. Before and after the intervention, the patients underwent a rsEEG task. Results showed no effect of HD-tDCS on the power in the different frequency bands. Also, no increase in asymmetrical activity was found. However, we found increased synchronicity in frontal regions in the alpha and beta frequency bands indicating enhanced connectivity in frontal brain regions as a result of the HD-tDCS-intervention. This study has enhanced our understanding of the neural underpinnings of aggression and violence, pointing to the importance of alpha and beta frequency bands and their connectivity in frontal brain regions. Although future studies should further investigate the complex neural underpinnings of aggression in different populations and using whole-brain connectivity, it can be suggested with caution, that HD-tDCS could be an innovative method to regain frontal synchronicity in neurorehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen S. Sergiou
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Elisa Tatti
- City College of New York (CUNY) School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sara M. Romanella
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Emiliano Santarnecchi
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Alix D. Weidema
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Eric G.C Rassin
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ingmar H.A. Franken
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Josanne D.M. van Dongen
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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6
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Chua HS, Miller KJI, Sayyeda NA, AttaAlla MRYI, Babikir EOE, Kremláček J, Kuba M. Evaluation of Diurnal Changes of Mental Fatigue Using a New Portable Device for Visual Cognitive Evoked Potentials. ACTA MEDICA (HRADEC KRALOVE) 2023; 66:55-60. [PMID: 37930094 DOI: 10.14712/18059694.2023.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
In the age homogenous group of 13 healthy volunteers, we examined visual evoked potentials (VEP) visually evoked cognitive potentials (event-related potentials - ERP) and choice reaction time (CRT) five times during the day (from 10.00 a.m. up to midnight) to verify whether there are significant changes of the measured parameters of the cortical evoked potentials and CRT which might reflect the level of the mental fatigue. The electrophysiological testing was done with the use of a new portable VEP device named "VEPpeak" enabling to perform the examination outside standard labs in almost any conditions. It was found that the latency of ERP (P300 peak time) and CRT displayed significant prolongation toward midnight while VEP latency and all amplitudes did not change significantly. This pilot study supports our idea that the portable VEP device possibly might be used for the objective examination of mental fatigue that is needed in many situations. This should be confirmed in a larger study also including a comparison with non-electrophysiological fatigue testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huey Shin Chua
- Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Dept. of Pathophysiology, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Katrin Ji-In Miller
- Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Dept. of Pathophysiology, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Niha Akhtar Sayyeda
- Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Dept. of Pathophysiology, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | | | - Eithar Osama Eltayeb Babikir
- Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Dept. of Pathophysiology, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kremláček
- Charles University - Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Dept. of Medical Biophysics, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Kuba
- Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Dept. of Pathophysiology, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic.
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7
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Machida K, Barry E, Mulligan A, Gill M, Robertson IH, Lewis FC, Green B, Kelly SP, Bellgrove MA, Johnson KA. Which Measures From a Sustained Attention Task Best Predict ADHD Group Membership? J Atten Disord 2022; 26:1471-1482. [PMID: 35253511 DOI: 10.1177/10870547221081266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Difficulty with sustaining attention to a task is a hallmark of ADHD. It would be useful to know which measures of sustained attention best predict a diagnosis of ADHD. Participants were 129 children with a diagnosis of ADHD and 129 matched controls who completed the fixed Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART). The number of commission and omission errors, standard deviation of response time (SDRT), tau, fast and slow frequency variability, d-prime, and mu were able to successfully classify children with and without ADHD. The mean response time, criterion, and sigma were not able to classify participants. The best classifiers were d-prime (0.75 Area Under the Receiver Operated Characteristic), tau (.74), SDRT (0.74), omission errors (0.72), commission errors (0.71), and SFAUS (0.70). This list of the best classifier measures derived from the SART may prove useful for the planning of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Benita Green
- The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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8
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Matar E, Ehgoetz Martens KA, Phillips JR, Wainstein G, Halliday GM, Lewis SJG, Shine JM. Dynamic network impairments underlie cognitive fluctuations in Lewy body dementia. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2022; 8:16. [PMID: 35177652 PMCID: PMC8854384 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-022-00279-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive fluctuations are a characteristic and distressing disturbance of attention and consciousness seen in patients with Dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia. It has been proposed that fluctuations result from disruption of key neuromodulatory systems supporting states of attention and wakefulness which are normally characterised by temporally variable and highly integrated functional network architectures. In this study, patients with DLB (n = 25) and age-matched controls (n = 49) were assessed using dynamic resting state fMRI. A dynamic network signature of reduced temporal variability and integration was identified in DLB patients compared to controls. Reduced temporal variability correlated significantly with fluctuation-related measures using a sustained attention task. A less integrated (more segregated) functional network architecture was seen in DLB patients compared to the control group, with regions of reduced integration observed across dorsal and ventral attention, sensorimotor, visual, cingulo-opercular and cingulo-parietal networks. Reduced network integration correlated positively with subjective and objective measures of fluctuations. Regions of reduced integration and unstable regional assignments significantly matched areas of expression of specific classes of noradrenergic and cholinergic receptors across the cerebral cortex. Correlating topological measures with maps of neurotransmitter/neuromodulator receptor gene expression, we found that regions of reduced integration and unstable modular assignments correlated significantly with the pattern of expression of subclasses of noradrenergic and cholinergic receptors across the cerebral cortex. Altogether, these findings demonstrate that cognitive fluctuations are associated with an imaging signature of dynamic network impairment linked to specific neurotransmitters/neuromodulators within the ascending arousal system, highlighting novel potential diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this troubling symptom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elie Matar
- Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. .,Forefront Parkinson's Disease Research Clinic, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. .,Forefront Research Team, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Kaylena A Ehgoetz Martens
- Forefront Parkinson's Disease Research Clinic, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Joseph R Phillips
- Forefront Parkinson's Disease Research Clinic, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Gabriel Wainstein
- Forefront Parkinson's Disease Research Clinic, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Centro de Investigaciones Médicas, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Forefront Research Team, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Simon J G Lewis
- Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Forefront Parkinson's Disease Research Clinic, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - James M Shine
- Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Forefront Parkinson's Disease Research Clinic, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Forefront Research Team, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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9
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Mihaylova MS, Bocheva NB, Stefanova MD, Genova BZ, Totev TT, Racheva KI, Shtereva KA, Staykova SN. Visual noise effect on reading in three developmental disorders: ASD, ADHD, and DD. AUTISM & DEVELOPMENTAL LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS 2022; 7:23969415221106119. [PMID: 36382080 PMCID: PMC9620686 DOI: 10.1177/23969415221106119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Developmental disorders such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Developmental Dyslexia (DD) are reported to have more visual problems, oral language difficulties, and diminished reading skills in addition to their different diagnostic features. Moreover, these conditions also have increased internal noise and probably an impaired ability of external noise filtering. The aim of the present study was to compare the reading performance of these groups in the presence of external visual noise which disrupts the automatic reading processes through the degradation of letters. METHODS Sixty-four children and adolescents in four groups, ASD, ADHD, DD, and TD, participated in the study. Two types of stimuli were used - unrelated words and pseudowords. The noise was generated by exchanging a fixed number of pixels between the black symbols and the white background distorting the letters. The task of the participants was to read aloud the words or pseudowords. The reading time for a single letter string, word or pseudoword, was calculated, and the proportion of errors was assessed in order to describe the reading performance. RESULTS The results obtained showed that the reading of unrelated words and pseudowords differs in the separate groups of participants and is affected differently by the added visual noise. In the no-noise condition, the group with TD had the shortest time for reading words and short pseudowords, followed by the group with ASD, while their reading of long pseudowords was slightly slower than that of the ASD group. The noise increase evoked variations in the reading of groups with ASD and ADHD, which differed from the no-noise condition and the control group with TD. The lowest proportion of errors was observed in readers with TD. The reading performance of the DD group was the worst at all noise levels, with the most prolonged reading time and the highest proportion of errors. At the highest noise level, the participants from all groups read the words and pseudowords with similar reading speed and accuracy. CONCLUSIONS In reading words and pseudowords, the ASD, ADHD, and DD groups show difficulties specific for each disorder revealed in a prolonged reading time and a higher proportion of errors. The dissimilarity in reading abilities of the groups with different development is most evident when the accuracy and reading speed are linked together. IMPLICATIONS The use of noise that degrades the letter structure in the present study allowed us to separate the groups with ASD, ADHD, and DD and disclose specifics in the reading process of each disorder. Error type analysis may provide a basis to improve the educational strategies by appropriately structuring the learning process of children with TD, ASD, ADHD, and DD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Slavcheva Mihaylova
- Milena Slavcheva Mihaylova, Institute of
Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 23 Academic Georgi Bonchev Street,
Sofia 1113, Bulgaria.
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10
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Wang P, Jiang X, Chen H, Zhang S, Li X, Cao Q, Sun L, Liu L, Yang B, Wang Y. Assessing Fine-Granularity Structural and Functional Connectivity in Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:594830. [PMID: 33281588 PMCID: PMC7691597 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.594830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was considered to be a disorder with high heterogeneity, as various abnormalities were found across widespread brain regions in recent neuroimaging studies. However, remarkable individual variability of cortical structure and function may have partially contributed to these discrepant findings. In this work, we applied the Dense Individualized and Common Connectivity-Based Cortical Landmarks (DICCCOL) method to identify fine-granularity corresponding functional cortical regions across different subjects based on the shape of a white matter fiber bundle and measured functional connectivities between these cortical regions. Fiber bundle pattern and functional connectivity were compared between ADHD patients and normal controls in two independent samples. Interestingly, four neighboring DICCCOLs located close to the left parietooccipital area consistently exhibited discrepant fiber bundles in both datasets. The left precentral gyrus (DICCCOL 175, BA 6) and the right anterior cingulate gyrus (DICCCOL 321, BA 32) had the highest connection number among 78 pairs of abnormal functional connectivities with good cross-sample consistency. Furthermore, abnormal functional connectivities were significantly correlated with ADHD symptoms. Our studies revealed novel fine-granularity structural and functional alterations in ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China.,Shenzhen Children's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xi Jiang
- School of Life Sciences and Technology, MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China.,Cortical Architecture Imaging and Discovery Lab, Department of Computer Science and Bioimaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Hanbo Chen
- Cortical Architecture Imaging and Discovery Lab, Department of Computer Science and Bioimaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Shu Zhang
- School of Computer Science, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Qingjiu Cao
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | - Li Sun
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
| | | | - Yufeng Wang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Institute of Mental Health, Beijing, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and the Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), Beijing, China
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