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Neo PSH, McNaughton N, Sellbom M. Midfrontal conflict theta and parietal P300 are linked to a latent factor of DSM externalising disorders. PERSONALITY NEUROSCIENCE 2024; 7:e7. [PMID: 38689856 PMCID: PMC11058520 DOI: 10.1017/pen.2023.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Psychiatric illnesses form spectra rather than categories, with symptoms varying continuously across individuals, i.e., there is no clear break between health and disorder. Dimensional measures of behaviour and brain activity are promising targets for studying biological mechanisms that are common across disorders. Here, we assessed the extent to which neural measures of the sensitivity of the three biological systems in the reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) could account for individual differences in a latent general factor estimated from symptom counts across externalising disorders (EXTs). RST explanatory power was pitted against reduced P300, a reliable indicator of externalising per previous research. We assessed 206 participants for DSM-5 EXTs (antisocial personality disorder, conduct disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, intermittent explosive disorder symptoms, alcohol use disorder, and cannabis use disorder). Of the final sample, 49% met diagnostic criteria for at least one of the EXTs. Electroencephalographic measures of the sensitivities of the behavioural activation system (BAS), the fight/flight/freeze system, and the behavioural inhibition system (BIS), as well as P300 were extracted from the gold bar-lemon and stop-signal tasks. As predicted, we found that low neural BIS sensitivity and low P300 were uniquely and negatively associated with our latent factor of externalising. Contrary to prediction, neural BAS/"dopamine" sensitivity was not associated with externalising. Our results provide empirical support for low BIS sensitivity and P300 as neural mechanisms common to disorders within the externalising spectrum; but, given the low N involved, future studies should seek to assess the replicability of our findings and, in particular, the differential involvement of the three RST systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phoebe S.-H. Neo
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Neil McNaughton
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Martin Sellbom
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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2
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The Effect of Social Value Orientation on Theta to Alpha Ratio in Resource Allocation Games. INFORMATION 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/info14030146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The social value orientation (SVO) has a profound effect on the strategic decision making in economic choices and the ability to succeed in coordination games. With that in mind, in this study we wanted to examine an electrophysiological measure elicited in different resource allocation problems that affect the preferences of the player. We recorded EEG from participants while they were engaged in different allocation problems varying in the magnitude of reward and the difference size between alternative choices. We found that the theta to alpha ratio (TAR) can differentiate between individualistic and prosocial players. Specifically, individualistic players were more sensitive to the magnitude of the overall payoff (reflected by the radius size) as well as to the difference between two reward alternatives in the resource allocation task. These two variables, reward magnitude, and the difference between payoff alternatives, have significantly differentiated between the TAR levels of prosocials and proselfs (p < 0.001). For extreme differences (small or large), TAR was higher in comparison to medium sized differences. Our results demonstrated that in resource allocation games the TAR can be predicted based on the parameters of the task and the SVO category of the player (prosocial or individualistic). Specifically, an interaction was found between the attractiveness of the reward (radius) as well as the conflict between alternatives (Δ∅) and the SVO of the player at a significance level of p < 0.0001. These results highlight the importance of the SVO construct in economic decision choices varying in both reward magnitude and the proximity between alternative choices. Suggestions for future studies are discussed.
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Marrero H, Yagual SN, Lemus A, García-Marco E, Díaz JM, Gámez E, Urrutia M, Beltrán D. Social approach and avoidance in language: N400-like ERP negativity indexes congruency and theta rhythms the conflict. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:1300-1309. [PMID: 35368078 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Motivational congruency has been examined using tasks where participants perform approach or avoidance movements towards socially positive or negative faces. Language is tightly intertwined with interpersonal cognition. Thus, similar situations could be represented by means of language in interpersonal contexts: adjectives furnish valence to people (e.g. someone is cordial or arrogant), and attitudinal verbs define direction to relationship-actions: approach-avoidance (e.g. accept vs. reject). In an Electroencephalography (EEG) study, 40 participants were presented with sentences where a character was valenced (e.g. "Arthur is cordial/arrogant") before being the target of a relationship-actions ("Grisela welcomed/ignored Arthur at the party"). We analyzed both Event-related potential (ERP) amplitude and time-frequency power in response to the attitudinal verb. For ERP amplitudes, we found a significant cluster between 280 and 370 ms, covering part of the development of a N400-like ERP component. This cluster reflects an interaction driven by congruency between motivational direction and target valence. Likewise, time-frequency power analysis revealed an enhancement of theta rhythms under incongruent conditions, most likely indexing conflict processing. Results support that relationship-actions are represented as approach and avoidance and thus involve conflict processing and resolution of incongruent situations. Implications for the interweaving of affective language and social cognition within Embodiment Simulation Theory are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hipólito Marrero
- Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Sara Nila Yagual
- Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y de la Salud, Universidad Estatal Península de Santa Elena (UPSE), La Libertad Santa Elena, Provincia de Santa Elena EC240250, Ecuador
| | - Alejandro Lemus
- Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Enrique García-Marco
- Departamento de Psicología Cognitiva, Social y Organizacional, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Facultad de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad Europea de Canarias, 38300 La Orotava, Spain
| | - Jose Miguel Díaz
- Departamento de Psicología Cognitiva, Social y Organizacional, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Elena Gámez
- Departamento de Psicología Cognitiva, Social y Organizacional, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Mabel Urrutia
- Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Facultad de Educación, Universidad de Concepción, Victor Lamas, Concepción 1290, Chile
| | - David Beltrán
- Instituto Universitario de Neurociencias. Universidad de La Laguna, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.,Departamento de Psicología Básica I, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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4
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Stolz C, Pickering AD, Mueller EM. Dissociable feedback valence effects on frontal midline theta during reward gain versus threat avoidance learning. Psychophysiology 2022; 60:e14235. [PMID: 36529988 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
While frontal midline theta (FMθ) has been associated with threat processing, with cognitive control in the context of anxiety, and with reinforcement learning, most reinforcement learning studies on FMθ have used reward rather than threat-related stimuli as reinforcer. Accordingly, the role of FMθ in threat-related reinforcement learning is largely unknown. Here, n = 23 human participants underwent one reward-, and one punishment-, based reversal learning task, which differed only with regard to the kind of reinforcers that feedback was tied to (i.e., monetary gain vs. loud noise burst, respectively). In addition to single-trial EEG, we assessed single-trial feedback expectations based on both a reinforcement learning computational model and trial-by-trial subjective feedback expectation ratings. While participants' performance and feedback expectations were comparable between the reward and punishment tasks, FMθ was more reliably amplified to negative vs. positive feedback in the reward vs. punishment task. Regressions with feedback valence, computationally derived, and self-reported expectations as predictors and FMθ as criterion further revealed that trial-by-trial variations in FMθ specifically relate to reward-related feedback-valence and not to threat-related feedback or to violated expectations/prediction errors. These findings suggest that FMθ as measured in reinforcement learning tasks may be less sensitive to the processing of events with direct relevance for fear and anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Stolz
- Department of Psychology University of Marburg Marburg Germany
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN) Magdeburg Germany
- Department of Psychology Goldsmiths, University of London London UK
| | | | - Erik M. Mueller
- Department of Psychology University of Marburg Marburg Germany
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5
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Lange L, Rommerskirchen L, Osinsky R. Midfrontal Theta Activity Is Sensitive to Approach-Avoidance Conflict. J Neurosci 2022; 42:7799-7808. [PMID: 36414005 PMCID: PMC9581558 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2499-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Midfrontal theta (FMθ) in the human EEG is commonly viewed as a generic and homogeneous mechanism of cognitive control in general and conflict processing in particular. However, the role of FMθ in approach-avoidance conflicts and its cross-task relationship to simpler stimulus-response conflicts remain to be examined more closely. Therefore, we recorded EEG data while 59 healthy participants (49 female, 10 male) completed both an approach-avoidance task and a flanker task. Participants showed significant increases in FMθ power in response to conflicts in both tasks. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show a direct relationship between FMθ and approach-avoidance conflicts. Crucially, FMθ activity was task dependent and showed no cross-task correlation. To assess the possibility of multiple FMθ sources, we applied source separation [generalized eigendecomposition (GED)] to distinguish independent FMθ generators. The activity of the components showed a similar pattern and was again task specific. However, our results did not yield a clear differentiation between task-specific FMθ sources for each of the participants. Overall, our results show FMθ increases in approach-avoidance conflicts, as has been established only for more simple response conflict paradigms so far. The independence of task-specific FMθ increases suggests differential sensitivity of FMθ to different forms of behavioral conflict.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT FMθ is well established as an indicator for cognitive conflict in tasks involving simple stimulus-response conflicts. However, we do not yet know about its role in more complex forms of goal ambivalence, such as approach-avoidance conflicts. Thus, we implemented an approach-avoidance task and a flanker task to investigate FMθ in response to simple as well as more complex response conflicts. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show a direct relationship between FMθ and approach-avoidance conflicts. Although the transient FMθ increase is similar to that induced in a simple response conflict task, individual FMθ responsiveness to these two forms of conflict were independent of each other, suggesting intraindividual differences in the sensitivity of FMθ to different forms of behavioral conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Lange
- Differential Psychology and Personality Research, Institute of Psychology, University of Osnabrueck, 49074 Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Lena Rommerskirchen
- Differential Psychology and Personality Research, Institute of Psychology, University of Osnabrueck, 49074 Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Roman Osinsky
- Differential Psychology and Personality Research, Institute of Psychology, University of Osnabrueck, 49074 Osnabrueck, Germany
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McNaughton N. Neuropsychological Theory as a Basis for Clinical Translation of Animal Models of Neuropsychiatric Disorder. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:877633. [PMID: 35619597 PMCID: PMC9128611 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.877633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Horr NK, Han K, Mousavi B, Tang R. Neural Signature of Buying Decisions in Real-World Online Shopping Scenarios – An Exploratory Electroencephalography Study Series. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 15:797064. [PMID: 35237138 PMCID: PMC8882609 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.797064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural underpinnings of decision-making are critical to understanding and predicting human behavior. However, findings from decision neuroscience are limited in their practical applicability due to the gap between experimental decision-making paradigms and real-world choices. The present manuscript investigates the neural markers of buying decisions in a fully natural purchase setting: participants are asked to use their favorite online shopping applications to buy common goods they are currently in need of. Their electroencephalography (EEG) is recorded while they view the product page for each item. EEG responses to pages for products that are eventually bought are compared to those that are discarded. Study 1 repeats this procedure in three batches with different participants, product types, and time periods. In an explorative analysis, two neural markers for buying compared to no-buying decisions are discovered over all three batches: frontal alpha asymmetry peak and frontal theta power peak. Occipital alpha power at alpha asymmetry peaks differs in only one of the three batches. No further significant markers are found. Study 2 compares the natural product search to a design in which subjects are told which product pages to view. In both settings, the frontal alpha asymmetry peak is increased for buying decisions. Frontal theta peak increase is replicated only when subjects search through product pages by themselves. The present study series represents an attempt to find neural markers of real-world decisions in a fully natural environment and explore how those markers can change due to small adjustments for the sake of experimental control. Limitations and practical applicability of the real-world approach to studying decision-making are discussed.
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Rolle CE, Pedersen ML, Johnson N, Amemori KI, Ironside M, Graybiel AM, Pizzagalli DA, Etkin A. The Role of the Dorsal-Lateral Prefrontal Cortex in Reward Sensitivity During Approach-Avoidance Conflict. Cereb Cortex 2021; 32:1269-1285. [PMID: 34464445 PMCID: PMC9077265 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Approach-Avoidance conflict (AAC) arises from decisions with embedded positive and negative outcomes, such that approaching leads to reward and punishment and avoiding to neither. Despite its importance, the field lacks a mechanistic understanding of which regions are driving avoidance behavior during conflict. In the current task, we utilized transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and drift-diffusion modeling to investigate the role of one of the most prominent regions relevant to AAC-the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). The first experiment uses in-task disruption to examine the right dlPFC's (r-dlPFC) causal role in avoidance behavior. The second uses single TMS pulses to probe the excitability of the r-dlPFC, and downstream cortical activations, during avoidance behavior. Disrupting r-dlPFC during conflict decision-making reduced reward sensitivity. Further, r-dlPFC was engaged with a network of regions within the lateral and medial prefrontal, cingulate, and temporal cortices that associate with behavior during conflict. Together, these studies use TMS to demonstrate a role for the dlPFC in reward sensitivity during conflict and elucidate the r-dlPFC's network of cortical regions associated with avoidance behavior. By identifying r-dlPFC's mechanistic role in AAC behavior, contextualized within its conflict-specific downstream neural connectivity, we advance dlPFC as a potential neural target for psychiatric therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camarin E Rolle
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA,Stanford Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA,Alto Neuroscience, Inc., Los Altos, CA 94022, USA
| | - Mads L Pedersen
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic & Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA,Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Noriah Johnson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA,Stanford Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA,Alto Neuroscience, Inc., Los Altos, CA 94022, USA
| | - Ken-ichi Amemori
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (ASHBi), Kyoto University, 606-8501 Kyoto, Japan
| | - Maria Ironside
- Laureate Institute for Brain Research, 6655 South Yale Avenue, Tulsa, OK 74136, USA
| | - Ann M Graybiel
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - Amit Etkin
- Address correspondence to Amit Etkin, Alto Neuroscience, Inc., 153 Second street (suite 107), Los Altos, CA 94022, USA.
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Qing K, Huang R, Hong KS. Decoding Three Different Preference Levels of Consumers Using Convolutional Neural Network: A Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 14:597864. [PMID: 33488372 PMCID: PMC7815930 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.597864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study decodes consumers' preference levels using a convolutional neural network (CNN) in neuromarketing. The classification accuracy in neuromarketing is a critical factor in evaluating the intentions of the consumers. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is utilized as a neuroimaging modality to measure the cerebral hemodynamic responses. In this study, a specific decoding structure, called CNN-based fNIRS-data analysis, was designed to achieve a high classification accuracy. Compared to other methods, the automated characteristics, constant training of the dataset, and learning efficiency of the proposed method are the main advantages. The experimental procedure required eight healthy participants (four female and four male) to view commercial advertisement videos of different durations (15, 30, and 60 s). The cerebral hemodynamic responses of the participants were measured. To compare the preference classification performances, CNN was utilized to extract the most common features, including the mean, peak, variance, kurtosis, and skewness. Considering three video durations, the average classification accuracies of 15, 30, and 60 s videos were 84.3, 87.9, and 86.4%, respectively. Among them, the classification accuracy of 87.9% for 30 s videos was the highest. The average classification accuracies of three preferences in females and males were 86.2 and 86.3%, respectively, showing no difference in each group. By comparing the classification performances in three different combinations (like vs. so-so, like vs. dislike, and so-so vs. dislike) between two groups, male participants were observed to have targeted preferences for commercial advertising, and the classification performance 88.4% between "like" vs. "dislike" out of three categories was the highest. Finally, pairwise classification performance are shown as follows: For female, 86.1% (like vs. so-so), 87.4% (like vs. dislike), 85.2% (so-so vs. dislike), and for male 85.7, 88.4, 85.1%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunqiang Qing
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Ruisen Huang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Keum-Shik Hong
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
- Department of Cogno-Mechatronics Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
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Goldstein Ferber S, Shoval G, Zalsman G, Mikulincer M, Weller A. Between Action and Emotional Survival During the COVID-19 era: Sensorimotor Pathways as Control Systems of Transdiagnostic Anxiety-Related Intolerance to Uncertainty. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:680403. [PMID: 34393847 PMCID: PMC8358206 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.680403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic and aligned social and physical distancing regulations increase the sense of uncertainty, intensifying the risk for psychopathology globally. Anxiety disorders are associated with intolerance to uncertainty. In this review we describe brain circuits and sensorimotor pathways involved in human reactions to uncertainty. We present the healthy mode of coping with uncertainty and discuss deviations from this mode. Methods: Literature search of PubMed and Google Scholar. Results: As manifestation of anxiety disorders includes peripheral reactions and negative cognitions, we suggest an integrative model of threat cognitions modulated by sensorimotor regions: "The Sensorimotor-Cognitive-Integration-Circuit." The model emphasizes autonomic nervous system coupling with the cortex, addressing peripheral anxious reactions to uncertainty, pathways connecting cortical regions and cost-reward evaluation circuits to sensorimotor regions, filtered by the amygdala and basal ganglia. Of special interest are the ascending and descending tracts for sensory-motor crosstalk in healthy and pathological conditions. We include arguments regarding uncertainty in anxiety reactions to the pandemic and derive from our model treatment suggestions which are supported by scientific evidence. Our model is based on systematic control theories and emphasizes the role of goal conflict regulation in health and pathology. We also address anxiety reactions as a spectrum ranging from healthy to pathological coping with uncertainty, and present this spectrum as a transdiagnostic entity in accordance with recent claims and models. Conclusions: The human need for controllability and predictability suggests that anxiety disorders reactive to the pandemic's uncertainties reflect pathological disorganization of top-down bottom-up signaling and neural noise resulting from non-pathological human needs for coherence in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sari Goldstein Ferber
- Psychology Department and Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Gal Shoval
- Geha Mental Health Center, Petah Tiqva, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - Gil Zalsman
- Geha Mental Health Center, Petah Tiqva, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Mario Mikulincer
- Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Herzliya, Israel
| | - Aron Weller
- Psychology Department and Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
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