Voltage-Dependent Inhibition of Glycine Receptor Channels by Niflumic Acid

Vesicle-Encapsulated Chemosensing Ensembles Allow Monitoring of Transmembrane Uptake Coupled with Enzymatic Reactions

Compartmentalized models with coupled catalytic networks are considered as "protocells" in the context of research related to the origin of life. To model the kinetics of a simple cellular uptake-metabolism process, we use a compartmentalized protocell system that combines liposome-encapsulated intravesicular reporter pairs with co-encapsulated enzymes to monitor the membrane transport of a substrate (analyte uptake) and its subsequent enzymatic reaction inside the vesicles (metabolism to the product). The intravesicular chemosensing ensembles consist of the macrocycles cucurbit[7]uril or p-sulfonatocalix[4]arene and matching fluorescent dyes to set up suitable reporter pairs. When these macrocycle/dye reporter pairs are co-encapsulated with enzymes (trypsin, protein kinase A, or butyrylcholinesterase), it is possible to monitor first the transport of different substrates (polylysine, protamine, H-LRRWSLG-OH, or butyrylcholine) through added pores (outer membrane proteins F and C), with synthetic carriers (amphiphilic calixarenes), or by direct permeation (only for butyrylcholine). The subsequent enzymatic conversions of the substrates after they have entered the corresponding protocells can be monitored as consecutive reactions. The new type of in vitro assays can be applied to different enzymes and analytes, affording a comprehensive chemosensing system of high chemical complexity.

Contribution of GlyR α3 Subunits to the Sensitivity and Effect of Ethanol in the Nucleus Accumbens

The glycine receptor (GlyR), a ligand-gated ion channel, is critical for inhibitory neurotransmission in brainstem, spinal cord, and in supraspinal regions. Recent data from several laboratories have shown that GlyRs are expressed in the brain reward circuitry and that α1 and α2 are the principal subunits expressed in the nucleus accumbens (nAc). In the present study, we studied the sensitivity to ethanol of homomeric and heteromeric α3 GlyR subunits in HEK293 cells and dissociated neurons from the nAc. Finally, we explored ethanol-related behaviors in a Glra3 knockout mouse (Glra3^–/–). Studies in HEK293 cells showed that while homomeric α3 GlyR subunits were insensitive to ethanol, heteromeric α3β GlyR subunits showed higher sensitivity to ethanol. Additionally, using electrophysiological recordings in dissociated accumbal neurons, we found that the glycine current density increased in Glra3^–/– mice and the GlyRs were less affected by ethanol and picrotoxin. We also examined the effect of ethanol on sedation and drinking behavior in Glra3^–/– mice and found that the duration in the loss of righting reflex (LORR) was unchanged compared to wild-type (WT) mice. On the other hand, using the drinking in the dark (DID) paradigm, we found that Glra3^–/– mice have a larger ethanol consumption compared to WT mice, and that this was already high during the first days of exposure to ethanol. Our results support the conclusion that heteromeric α3β, but not homomeric α3, GlyRs are potentiated by ethanol. Also, the increase in GlyR and GABA_AR mediated current densities in accumbal neurons in the KO mice support the presence of compensatory changes to α3 knock out. The increase in ethanol drinking in the Glra3^–/– mice might be associated to the reduction in β and compensatory changes in other subunits in the receptor arrangement.

Presence of ethanol sensitive and insensitive glycine receptors in the ventral tegmental area and prefrontal cortex in mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Previous studies showed that glycine receptors (GlyRs) composed of α1 and β subunits are primarily found in spinal cord and brainstem and are potentiated by ethanol (10-100 mM). However, much less is known about the presence, composition, and ethanol sensitivity of GlyRs in higher CNS regions. In the present study, we examined two regions of the brain reward system, the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the prefrontal cortex (PFC), to determine their GlyR subunit composition and sensitivity to ethanol.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

To achieve these aims, we used Western blot, immunohistochemistry and electrophysiological techniques in three different models: Wild-type C57BL/6, GlyR α1 knock-in and GlyR α2 knockout mice.

KEY RESULTS

Similar levels of α and β GlyR subunits were detected in both brain regions, and electrophysiological recordings demonstrated the presence of glycine-activated currents in both areas. The sensitivity of GlyRs to glycine was lower in the PFC compared to VTA. Picrotoxin blocked the glycine-activated current in the PFC and VTA only partially, indicating that both regions express heteromeric αβ receptors. Interestingly, GlyRs in VTA neurons, but not in PFC neurons, were potentiated by ethanol.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

GlyRs in VTA neurons from WT and α2 KO mice were potentiated by ethanol, but not in neurons from the α1 KI mice, supporting the conclusion that α1 GlyRs are predominantly expressed in the VTA. By contrast, GlyRs in PFC neurons were not potentiated in any of the mouse models studied, suggesting the presence of either α2/α3/α4 rather than α1 GlyR subunits.

Development of a QPatch-Automated Electrophysiology Assay for Identifying TMEM16A Small-Molecule Inhibitors

The calcium-activated chloride channel, TMEM16A, is involved in airway hydration and bronchoconstriction and is a promising target for respiratory disease. Drug development efforts around channels require an electrophysiology-based assay for identifying inhibitors or activators. TMEM16A has proven to be a difficult channel to record on automated electrophysiology platforms due to its propensity for rundown. We developed an automated, whole-cell, electrophysiology assay on the QPatch-48 to evaluate small-molecule inhibitors of TMEM16A. In this assay, currents remained stable for a duration of roughly 11 min, allowing for the cumulative addition of five concentrations of compounds and resulted in reproducible IC₅₀s. The absence of rundown was likely due to a low internal free-calcium level of 250 nM, which was high enough to produce large currents, but also maintained the voltage dependence of the channel. Current amplitude averaged 6 nA using the single-hole QPlate and the channel maintained outward rectification throughout the recording. Known TMEM16A inhibitors were tested and their IC₅₀s aligned with those reported in the literature using manual patch-clamp. Once established, this assay was used to validate novel TMEM16A inhibitors that were identified in our high-throughput fluorescent-based assay, as well as to assist in structure–activity relationship efforts by the chemists. Overall, we demonstrate an easy to operate, reproducible, automated electrophysiology assay using the QPatch-48 for TMEM16A drug development efforts.

Subunit-Specific Photocontrol of Glycine Receptors by Azobenzene-Nitrazepam Photoswitcher

Photopharmacology is a unique approach that through a combination of photochemistry methods and advanced life science techniques allows the study and control of specific biological processes, ranging from intracellular pathways to brain circuits. Recently, a first photochromic channel blocker of anion-selective GABA_A receptors, the azobenzene-nitrazepam-based photochromic compound (Azo-NZ1), has been described. In the present study, using patch-clamp technique in heterologous system and in mice brain slices, site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modeling we provide evidence of the interaction of Azo-NZ1 with glycine receptors (GlyRs) and determine the molecular basis of this interaction. Glycinergic synaptic neurotransmission determines an important inhibitory drive in the vertebrate nervous system and plays a crucial role in the control of neuronal circuits in the spinal cord and brain stem. GlyRs are involved in locomotion, pain sensation, breathing, and auditory function, as well as in the development of such disorders as hyperekplexia, epilepsy, and autism. Here, we demonstrate that Azo-NZ1 blocks in a UV-dependent manner the activity of α2 GlyRs (GlyR2), while being barely active on α1 GlyRs (GlyR1). The site of Azo-NZ1 action is in the chloride-selective pore of GlyR at the 2’ position of transmembrane helix 2 and amino acids forming this site determine the difference in Azo-NZ1 blocking activity between GlyR2 and GlyR1. This subunit-specific modulation is also shown on motoneurons of brainstem slices from neonatal mice that switch during development from expressing “fetal” GlyR2 to “adult” GlyR1 receptors.

The general anesthetic etomidate and fenamate mefenamic acid oppositely affect GABAAR and GlyR: a structural explanation

GABA and glycine act as inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS. Inhibitory neurotransmission is mediated via activation of ionotropic GABA_A and glycine receptors. We used a modeling approach to explain the opposite effects of the general anesthetic etomidate (ETM) and fenamate mefenamic acid (MFA) on GABA- and glycine-activated currents recorded in isolated cerebellar Purkinje cells and hippocampal pyramidal neurons, respectively. These drugs potentiated GABA_ARs but blocked GlyRs. We built a homology model of α1β GlyR based on the cryo-EM structure of open α1 GlyR, used the α1β3γ2 GABA_AR structure from the PDB, and applied Monte-Carlo energy minimization to optimize models of receptors and ligand-receptor complexes. In silico docking suggests that ETM/MFA bind at the transmembrane β( +)/α( -) intersubunit interface in GABA_AR. Our models predict that the bulky side chain of the highly conserved Arg^19' residue at the plus interface side wedges the interface and maintains the conducting receptor state. We hypothesized that MFA/ETM binding at the β( +)/α( -) interface leads to prolongation of receptor life-time in the open state. Having analyzed different GABA_AR and GlyR structures available in the PDB, we found that mutual arrangement of the Arg^19' and Gln^-26' side chains at the plus and minus interface sides, respectively, plays an important role when the receptor switches from the open to closed state. We show that this process is accompanied by narrowing of the intersubunit interfaces, leading to extrusion of the Arg^19' side chain from the interface. Our models allow us to explain the lack of GlyR potentiation in our electrophysiological experiments.

Identification of the hypertension drug niflumic acid as a glycine receptor inhibitor

Glycine is one of the major neurotransmitters in the brainstem and the spinal cord. Glycine binds to and activates glycine receptors (GlyRs), increasing Cl^- conductance at postsynaptic sites. This glycinergic synaptic transmission contributes to the generation of respiratory rhythm and motor patterns. Strychnine inhibits GlyR by binding to glycine-binding site, while picrotoxin blocks GlyR by binding to the channel pore. We have previously reported that bath application of strychnine to zebrafish embryos causes bilateral muscle contractions in response to tactile stimulation. To explore the drug-mediated inhibition of GlyRs, we screened a chemical library of ~ 1,000 approved drugs and pharmacologically active molecules by observing touch-evoked response of zebrafish embryos in the presence of drugs. We found that exposure of zebrafish embryos to nifedipine (an inhibitor of voltage-gated calcium channel) or niflumic acid (an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase 2) caused bilateral muscle contractions just like strychnine-treated embryos showed. We then assayed strychnine, picrotoxin, nifedipine, and niflumic acid for concentration-dependent inhibition of glycine-mediated currents of GlyRs in oocytes and calculated IC₅₀s. The results indicate that all of them concentration-dependently inhibit GlyR in the order of strychnine > picrotoxin > nifedipine > niflumic acid.

Modulators of the Inhibitory Glycine Receptor

The inhibitory glycine receptor is a member of the Cys-loop superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels. It is the principal mediator of rapid synaptic inhibition in the spinal cord and brainstem and plays an important role in the modulation of higher brain functions including vision, hearing, and pain signaling. Glycine receptor function is controlled by only a few agonists, while the number of antagonists and positive or biphasic modulators is steadily increasing. These modulators are important for the study of receptor activation and regulation and have found clinical interest as potential analgesics and anticonvulsants. High-resolution structures of the receptor have become available recently, adding to our understanding of structure-function relationships and revealing agonistic, inhibitory, and modulatory sites on the receptor protein. This Review presents an overview of compounds that activate, inhibit, or modulate glycine receptor function in vitro and in vivo.

The mechanisms of potentiation and inhibition of GABAA receptors by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, mefenamic and niflumic acids

Fenamates mefanamic and niflumic acids (MFA and NFA) induced dual potentiating and inhibitory effects on GABA currents recorded in isolated cerebellar Purkinje cells using the whole-cell patch-clamp and fast-application techniques. Regardless of the concentration, both drugs induced a pronounced prolongation of the current response. We demonstrated that the same concentration of drugs can produce both potentiating and inhibitory effects, depending on the GABA concentration, which indicates that both processes take place simultaneously and the net effect depends on the concentrations of both the agonist and fenamate. We found that the NFA-induced block is strongly voltage-dependent. The Woodhull analysis of the block suggests that NFA has two binding sites in the pore - shallow and deep. We built a homology model of the open GABA_AR based on the cryo-EM structure of the open α1 GlyR and applied Monte-Carlo energy minimization to optimize the ligand-receptor complexes. A systematic search for MFA/NFA binding sites in the GABA_AR pore revealed the existence of two sites, the location of which coincides well with predictions of the Woodhull model. In silico docking suggests that two fenamate molecules are necessary to occlude the pore. We showed that MFA, acting as a PAM, competes with an intravenous anesthetic etomidate for a common binding site. We built structural models of MFA and NFA binding at the transmembrane β(+)/α(-) intersubunit interface. We suggested a hypothesis on the molecular mechanism underlying the prolongation of the receptor lifetime in open state after MFA/NFA binding and β subunit specificity of the fenamate potentiation.

A photoswitchable GABA receptor channel blocker

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Anion-selective Cys-loop receptors (GABA and glycine receptors) provide the main inhibitory drive in the CNS. Both types of receptor operate via chloride-selective ion channels, though with different kinetics, pharmacological profiles, and localization. Disequilibrium in their function leads to a variety of disorders, which are often treated with allosteric modulators. The few available GABA and glycine receptor channel blockers effectively suppress inhibitory currents in neurons, but their systemic administration is highly toxic. With the aim of developing an efficient light-controllable modulator of GABA receptors, we constructed azobenzene-nitrazepam (Azo-NZ1), which is composed of a nitrazepam moiety merged to an azobenzene photoisomerizable group.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The experiments were carried out on cultured cells expressing Cys-loop receptors of known subunit composition and in brain slices using patch-clamp. Site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modelling approaches were applied to evaluate the mechanism of action of Azo-NZ1.

KEY RESULTS

At visible light, being in trans-configuration, Azo-NZ1 blocked heteromeric α1/β2/γ2 GABA_A receptors, ρ2 GABA_A (GABA_C ), and α2 glycine receptors, whereas switching the compound into cis-state by UV illumination restored the activity. Azo-NZ1 successfully photomodulated GABAergic currents recorded from dentate gyrus neurons. We demonstrated that in trans-configuration, Azo-NZ1 blocks the Cl-selective ion pore of GABA receptors interacting mainly with the 2' level of the TM2 region.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Azo-NZ1 is a soluble light-driven Cl-channel blocker, which allows photo-modulation of the activity induced by anion-selective Cys-loop receptors. Azo-NZ1 is able to control GABAergic postsynaptic currents and provides new opportunities to study inhibitory neurotransmission using patterned illumination.

Developmental Changes in the Inhibition of Glycinergic Synaptic Currents by Niflumic Acid in Hypoglossal Motoneurons

Mammalian brainstem hypoglossal motoneurones (HMs) receive powerful synaptic glycinergic inputs and are involved in a variety of motor functions, including respiration, chewing, sucking, swallowing, and phonation. During the early postnatal development, subunit composition of chloride-permeable glycine receptors (GlyRs) changes leading to a decrease of "fetal" alpha2 and elevation of "adult" alpha1 GlyR subunits. It has been recently demonstrated that niflumic acid (NFA), a member of the fenamate class of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, is an efficient subunits-specific blocker of GlyRs. At a heterologous expression of different GlyR subunits it has been shown that blocking potency of NFA is more than one order higher for alpha2 GlyRs than for receptors formed by alpha1 subunit. To reveal the action of NFA on the synaptic activity we analyzed here the effects of NFA on the glycinergic inhibitory post-synaptic currents in the HMs from mouse brainstem slices. In the whole-cell patch clamp configuration, the amplitude and the frequency of glycinergic synaptic currents from two age groups have been analyzed: "neonate" (P2-P4) and "juvenile" (P7-P12). Addition of NFA in the presence of antagonists of glutamate and GABA receptors caused a decrease in the mean amplitude and frequency of synaptic events. The degree of the inhibition induced by NFA decreased with the postnatal development, being higher on the motoneurons from "neonate" brainstem slices in comparison with the "juvenile" age group. Analysis of the pair-pulse facilitation suggests the post-synaptic origin of NFA action. These observations provide evidence on the developmental changes in the inhibition by NFA of glycinergic synaptic transmission, which reflects increase in the alpha1 and decrease in the alpha2 GlyR subunits expression in synapses to hypoglossal motoneurons during the early stages of postnatal life.